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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




























































































































* 






















CONTENTS 

A Note to Teachers . 3-4 

Books for Supplementary Readings. 5-6 

Food in General . 7 

Carbohydrates . 7 

Starch . 8-21 

Classes of Starchy Food; The Cereals; Wheat; 

Corn ; Oats; Rye; Rice ; Barley; Buckwheat; 

Potato (Irish) ; Potato (Sweet). 

Sugar . 21-28 

Cane Sugar; Sorghum; Beet Sugar; Maple 
Sugar; Honey; Grape Sugar; Milk Sugar; 

Other Sweet Substances; Effect of Sugar on 
Human System; The Cooking of Sugar; 

Candy. 

Fat. 28-34 

Animal; Vegetable ; Olive Oil; Butter. 

Mineral Matter . 34 

Water; Ice . 34-38 

Green Vegetables . 38-42 

Fruit . 42-47 

Nuts . 47-5 1 

Beverages . 5 I_ 59 

Tea; Coffee; Cocoa. 

Proteids. 60-83 

Vegetable Proteid; Animal Proteid; Milk; 

Cheese; Eggs; Shellfish; Oysters; Clam; Lob¬ 
ster; Crab; Fish; Meat. 

Suitable Combinations of Food. 83-88 

Menus for Breakfast, Dinner and Supper; The 
School Lunch. 

Fire and Fuels. 88-95 

Solid Fuels; Wood; Charcoal; Coal; Coke; 

Peat; Liquid Fuels; Kerosene; Gasoline; 
Alcohol; Gaseous Fuels; Electricity. 


















CONTENTS 


Stoves and Ranges . 95-101 

Building and Managing a Fire in a Coal Stove 
or Range; The Gas Range; Directions for 
Cooking with a Gas Range. 

Methods of Cooking.ioi-m 

Boiling; Stewing; Steaming; Roasting; Pot 
Roasting; Broiling; Panning; Sauteing; Fry¬ 
ing; Braizing. 

Care of Food: A Few General Suggestions .m-120 

Bread Crumbs; Chocolate; To Clarify Fat; 
Croutons; Caramel; Custards; Eggs; To Scale 
and Clean a Fish; To Bone a Fish; Greasing 
Pans; Knives ; Onions ; Parsley. 

Ways of Combining Ingredients.120-121 

Weights and Measures.121-123 

Recipes for Cooking Starches, Sugars, Vege¬ 
tables, Fruits, Beverages and Proteids.123-149 

Batters and Doughs .149-165 

Flour; Yeast; Baking Powder; Quick Breads; 

Loaf Breads; Cakes. 

Desserts .165-168 

Simple Physical and Chemical Experiments with 

Food Materials ...169-180 











Elementary Domestic Science 

A TEXT BOOK FOR SCHOOLS 


VOLUME I. 

FOOD AND COOKERY 


BY SARAH WINDLE LANDES. 

PROFESSOR OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE, OKLAHOMA AGRICULTURAL AND 
MECHANICAL COLLEGE. FORMERLY OF OHIO STATE 
SCHOOL FOR SOLDIERS' AND SAILORS' ORPHANS; 

AND OF THE GEORGIA STATE NORMAL 
AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE. 


SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED 



« 


STUDENTS SUPPLY HOUSE 

STILLWATER, OKLA. 







Copyright 1909, 1911. 

BY SARAH WINDLE LANDES. 

All rights reserved. 


( 





o f 


Leader Print Guthrie, Okla. 



©CU‘28t»404 




A NOTE TO TEACHERS 


This hand-book, while perhaps suitable for use in cer¬ 
tain high schools, has been prepared chiefly to fit the needs 
of the upper elementary grades. 

One of its aims being to correlate the subject of domes¬ 
tic science with the general course of study, some space is 
given to the history, cultivation, and commercial value of 
food products. Thus it connects with geography, agricul¬ 
ture or nature study, and history, besides allowing much 
opportunity for language work. In the practical problems 
of cooking, mathematics may be emphasized by having the 
pupils either lessen or increase the amount of materials 
stated in the recipes; also, by requiring them to compute 
the cost of the ingredients used in the various dishes. Such 
practice is not only of educational value in the class room,, 
but may fit into the home life, in the buying and use of 
household supplies. 

Although a text-book in domestic science must deal 
with certain phases of chemistry, physics and biology, this 
treatise omits, as far as possible, technical terms in such 
subjects, because pupils below the high school might not 
understand them. It is hoped that the explanations of 
natural phenomena may, nevertheless, be clear enough to 
give a general fundamental knowledge of domestic science. 

In order to fit work in domestic science to the needs 
of various kinds of schools, this book is divided into three 
sections: I. Food, II. Cookery, III. Elementary Chem¬ 
ical and Physical Experiments with Food Materials. If a 
school has no equipment for either practical work in cooking 
or simple chemical experiments, the first section, giving 
information about food, may be used alone. In schools 
lacking a kitchen but supplied with chemical apparatus, it 
will be found possible to combine the work of the first 
and the third section. When a school is so fortunate as to 
have a kitchen laboratory the work of the second section 


4 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


should be added to that of the other sections. In strictly 
industrial schools, emphasis may be given to the second 
section, certain parts of the first and third being taught 
through the second. It is hoped that the flexibility allowed 
by this arrangement may prove advantageous. 

The author believes that the time is rapidly approaching 
—if not, indeed, already here—when people in general will 
realize that food should be studied mainly from the view¬ 
point of its effect upon the health. For many years, chem¬ 
istry in its relations to food and cooking has held our closest 
attention. Of late, there have appeared books on physiolog¬ 
ical chemistry, or chemical physiology. These would seem 
to indicate that thought is turning in a somewhat different 
direction. In a broadly- practical way, the influence of such 
thought appears in the experiments with training diets at 
various universities, in the investigations into army rations 
among the different nations, and in the active campaigns 
for pure food laws. 

When the teachings of domestic science shall lead the 
general public to believe that “we are what we eat,” and 
to select such food as tends toward the better health and the 
higher economic value of each individual, then will our 
subject have proved its right to rank among the great 
economic studies of the age. 

Sarah Windle Landes. 

Stillwater, Okla., 

May io, 1909. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 5 

BOOKS USEFUL FOR READING IN CONNECTION 
WITH ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE, 
VOL. I. FOOD AND COOKERY. 


Anthropology.Edward B. Tyler 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Bacteria, Yeast, and Molds in the Home.H. W. Conn 

P. Blakiston’s Son and Company, Philadelphia. 

Breakfast Foods, Bulletin 162. 

Ontario Department of Agriculture. 

Chemistry in Daily Life.Lassar Cohn 

H. Grevel and Company, London. 

Chemistry of Cooking.W. Mattieu Williams 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Corn Plants.Frederick Leroy Sargent 

Houghton, Mifflin and Company, Boston. 

Elements of The Theory and Practice of Cooking. 

.Williams and Fisher 

The Macmillan Company, New York. 

Fairy Land of Science.Arabella Buckley 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Farmers’ Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Nos. 25, 29, 34, 42, 62, 63, 74, 85, 93, 112, 121, 128, 

131, 142, 154, 175, 182, 183, 252, 255, 256, 291, 293, 

295, 332, and others. 

Food and Dietetics.Robert Hutchinson 

William Wood and Company, New York. 

Food in Health and Disease.I. Burney Yeo 

W. T. Keener and Company, Chicago. 

Food Products of the World.Mary E. Greene, M. D. 

The Hotel World, Chicago. 

Foods.Edward Smith 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Handbook of Domestic Science and Household Arts. .. . 

.Lucy L. W. Wilson 

The Macmillan Company, New York. 

Laboratory Manual of Physiological Chemistry. 

.Elbert W. Lockwood 

F. A. Davis Company, Philadelphia. 


















6 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Home Life in Colonial Days.Alice Morse Earle 

Grosset and Dunlap, New York. 

• Life and Her Children.Arabella Buckley 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Man Before Metals.N. Joly 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Milk and Its Products.Henry H. Wing 

The Macmillan Company, New York. 

Pleasures of the Table.George H. Ellwanger 

Doubleday, Page and Company, New York. 

Practical Dietetics.W. Gilman Thompson 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 

Sanitary and Applied Chemistry.E. H. T. Bailey 

The Macmillan Company, New York. 

The Chocolate Plant. Published by Walter Baker and 
Company, Dorchester, Mass. 

Woman's Share in Primitive Culture.O. T. Mason 

D. Appleton and Company, New York. 








ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC 

SCIENCE 


VOL. I. 

FOOD AND COOKERY. 

PART I. 

FOOD. 

Food is any subtsaiice that can be used in the body to 
form tissue, or to give heat. Some foods afford support 
in both of these ways, others in only one. 

Adults need food for the single purpose of repairing 
the daily wear and tear of the system. Children require 
food not only for this reason, but also for the growth of 
new tissue. Thus, a child who builds up rapidly and takes 
much exercise is “always 'hungry.” In early life, a lack 
of suitable food does more harm than in later years. An 
ill-fed child usually becomes sickly, or has a stunted growth. 

If food is to nourish the body, it must, of course, con¬ 
tain materials like those of which the body is formed. 
Because many foods are similar to each other in substance 
or in their effect upon the system, they are studied in 
groups, called (i) carbohydrates (starches and sugars), 
(2) proteids, (3) fats, (4) mineral matter, (5) water. 

CARBOHYDRATES. 

Carbohydrates is a name given by chemists to starches 
and sugars. Nearly all of these are found in the vegetable 
kingdom. Their use to the human system is to give heat 
and energy. Should more of the starches and sugars be 
eaten than the body needs immediately,-the surplus amount 
is stored up in the form of fat. 




8 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


STARCH. 

Starch is a fine white powder formed in many plants. 
It occurs in those parts from which the young plant starts. 
The starch is needed as food by the new plant until it puts 
forth roots and leaves of its own. Starch grains are not 
alike in all kinds of plants, but vary in size, shape and 
general appearance. For instance, the grains of potato 
starch are an odd, oyster-shell shape, and also quite large 
compared with the starch grains of rice and tapioca. 

Cold water has no effect upon starch. As an example, 
when a cold starch mixed for starching clothes is allowed 
to stand, the starch gradually settles. If the water then 
be poured off, and the starch dried, it will regain its original 
form. 

On the contrary, when a boiled starch is made for 
clothes, the starch grains absorb the water and swell, thus 
thickening the liquid. Should this mixture be allowed to 
stand, the starch will not separate out, the heat and mois¬ 
ture having changed it to a different form. In the cooking 
of starchy foods, a like action takes place; and it has been 
found that starch grains when thus mixed and swelled 
are much more easily digested than when eaten raw. (The 
swelling of starch by heat and moisture is curiously shown 
by the popping of corn, when the kernels increase so 
greatly in size that a pint before popping measures six or 
eight quarts after popping.) . 

Dry heat, if intense or long continued, has a stronger 
action than moist heat upon starch. For example, in bak¬ 
ing bread, when the crust turns a deep yellow, the starch 
is changed to a more soluble form which has been given 
the name dextrin. This is even more easily digested than 
boiled starch. So, .the crust of bread proves less of a tax 
upon the digestive organs than the crumb. For a like rea¬ 
son, toast, rather than fresh bread, is allowed to invalids. 

Much harm may result from the habit, which some 
children have, of eating uncooked starchy foods, such as 
raw peanuts, chestnuts, or potatoes. Slack-baked bread and 
biscuit are likewise objectionable. Many of the “ready-to- 
eat” breakfast foods cause indigestion apparently for the 
reason that the §tarch has not been thoroughly cooked. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


9 


CLASSES OF STARCHY FOODS. 

Among the starchy foods in common use are the 
cereals, potatoes, dried peas and beans. Starch occurs also 
in tapioca, sago, bananas, chocolate, peanuts and chest¬ 
nuts ; and, to a small extent, in certain other fruits and 
vegetables. 

THE CEREALS. 

These take their name from Ceres, who was worshipped 
in olden times as the goddess who took especial care of the 
growth of grains. They are really grasses, the seeds of 
which are used for food. By special cultivation through 
many centuries, they have developed a large amount of 
food material with only a small amount of husk. 

In the United States, the cereals in greatest demand 
for food are wheat, corn, oats, rice, rye, barley and buck¬ 
wheat. (The last, while not a true cereal, is usually classed 
as such.) 

Among all vegetable products, the cereals are in many 
ways the most important. Not only do they yield much 
nutriment, but in a form especially easy for man to obtain. 
They grow in nearly all parts of the world, almost every 
nation having a special cereal in common use as food. 
Some thrive in moist soil, others in dry. Certain ones yield 
best where'the climate is warm, and others where it is cold. 
Because of the dryness of all such grains, they can be kept 
for a long time without spoiling, many millions of bushels 
being stored each year in the great grain elevators of the 
West. They are also convenient for transportation. In 
this way grain has had much to do with the building up 
of the enormous shipping industries of the Great Lakes. 
Thus, not alone the food value of the cereals, but their 
commercial importance as well, is very great. 

WHEAT. 

Chemical Composition. 

Carbohydrates 71.2, water 12., proteid 11.,.cellulose 2.2, 
mineral matter 1.9, fat 1.7. 

Among all the cereals, wheat ranks as being the most 
nearly a perfect food. Its chief defect is its small amount 
of fat. So the common habit of eating butter with bread 
is wise. 


10 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Wheat has been cultivated through long ages in many 
countries, and we can not discover where it first grew. The 
Chinese believe that wheat was a direct gift to them from 
Heaven; and each year, they have a great public celebra¬ 
tion at which the sowing of wheat is made a special feature. 
In early times, it was largely raised about Rome and hi 
such common use as food that during a period of three 
hundred years, the people lived on little else than wheat 
groats. Europe is now the greatest wheat producing con¬ 
tinent, raising about as much as North and South America 
together. It appears that wheat was not grown in America 
before Columbus’ discovery. Since then, such rapid prog¬ 
ress has been made that the United States produced for 
many years more wheat than any other single country in 
the world, but recently Russia has grown the largest crops. 
Very great areas are devoted to wheat in India, France and 
Austria-Hungary. During the last fifty years, there has 
occurred in the United States a gradual westward move¬ 
ment of the center of wheat production. The first noted 
wheat area was in and about the Genesee valley of New 
York State; later the Miami valley region of Ohio became 
favorably known; while in recent years, Kansas has been 
the largest wheat producing state. 

If we examine a kernel of wheat under the microscope 
we find it to be made up of several layers. The outer one 
is quite hard. To this, the name husk, or bran, has been 
given. (It has no food value, as human beings can not 
digest it.) The next layers are rich in proteid. From 
them, the gluten, so valuable in bread making, is produced. 
(By chewing grains of wheat, we can obtain a grayish, 
tough, gummy substance, which is mainly gluten.) The 
center of the grain consists, to a great part, of starch. The 
tiny germ, or young plant, found at the lower end of the 
grain, contains some oil. 

A great many food substances are manufactured from 
wheat. The-whole grain after the husk has been removed, 
is made into rolled wheat and puffed wheat. When the 
grain is cut into several pieces, it takes the name of cracked 
wheat. By grinding the inner portion of the kernel some¬ 
what coarser than flour, preparations called cream of wheat, 
or farina are obtained. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


II 


In the United States, wheat is the grain mostly used 
for the manufacture of flour. Of this there are various 
grades. The fine, white, starchy flour comes from the 
central portion of the kernel. (In several of the old lan¬ 
guages the word wheat means “white.”) Whole, or entire 
wheat flour is not an exact term, as part of the bran has 
been removed. Naturally, this flour is nutritious, and 
of a dark color. Graham flour, as made at the present time, 
is often only a low grade of wheat flour to which the miller 
adds some bran. Macaroni, vermicelli, and similar prepa¬ 
rations are manufactured from flour mixed with water to 
form a stiff paste which is pressed into shape by machinery 
and then dried. These foods have good keeping qualities 
and are quite nutritious. (Occasionally, a dish of maca¬ 
roni and cheese may well be used instead of meat.) When 
buying macaroni, it is best to select that of a deep creamy 
tinge, or even slightly brown. Such macaroni—generally 
made from a hard wheat, Durum, is the most nutritious 
kind. Also, it retains its shape well when cooked. The 
very white macaroni, manufactured from soft, starchy 
wheat, has less flavor, and gives little nourishment. If *s 
likely to break while cooking, making a sticky, unpleasant 
looking mass. 

Wheat middlings, made from that part of the grain 
lying between the bran and the starchy center, are used in 
Boston brown bread, and in certain other breads, common 
among our foreign population. 

The by-products of wheat have considerable commer¬ 
cial importance. From wheat starch is made a paste or 
size used in various, manufactures. The bran has long been 
known as one of the best feeding stuffs for domestic ani¬ 
mals. For the straw there are several common uses: As 
a bedding for animals; as a fuel during harvesting on the 
large wheat farms of the West; as a packing for breakable 
articles. In Italy, a certain kind of wheat straw forms the 
material for the noted Leghorn hats. 

CORN. 

Chemical Composition. 

Carbohydrates 68.9, water 12.5, proteid 9.7, fat 5.4, 
cellulose 2., mineral matter 1.5. 


12 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


In ancient times the word corn meant any kind of 
cereal grain used for food. Even at present, in England, 
wheat is often spoken of as “corn,” while in Scotland, oats 
are called “corn.” But in the United States, the term is 
applied to maize or the Indian corn. Our word maize is 
said to be derived from mahiz, the Haytian name for a kind 
of native corn bread offered to Columbus. The plant is 
thought to be native to America because Columbus found 
that it had been in cultivation by the Indians long before 
he discovered the country. So strange did the plant appear 
to him that he carried back to Europe a few grains as a 
curiosity. 

From the days of the first colonists, who were saved 
from starvation by the maize that the Indians had taught 
them to raise corn has been of importance not only in 
agriculture, but in the general progress of the country. At 
present, it is the greatest of our staple products. The 
United States supply at least two-thirds of the world’; 
corn crop. The noted corn producing states are Illinois, 
Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Texas, Kansas, Indiana and 
Ohio. 

There are very many varieties of corn, those most 
common being dent corn, which shows a depression in the 
outer end of the grain; flint corn, so named from its hard, 
smooth kernel; sweet corn, rich in sugar and shriveling 
when ripe; and pop-corn, with small ears and small ker¬ 
nels. “Seed corn” is the name given to especially fine ears 
of any variety, selected for planting. 

The height of the plant varies from about two feet m 
certain dwarf varieties to twenty feet or over in some 
strains growing in Mexico and South America. 

Ears of corn vary in length from an inch in some 
kinds of pop-corn to fifteen inches or more in the dent 
varieties. 

The kernels of some kinds are no larger than a grain 
of rice, while in a South American variety (cuzco) each 
single kernel may weigh thirty-five times as much as. a 
pop-corn grain. 

When ripe, the kernels are white, yellow, red or black, 
with variations. The two kinds commonly raised are yel¬ 
low and white. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


J 3 


Many degrees of hardness appear, some being quite 
soft, while others, the flint varieties in particular, are noted 
for their hardness. 

As corn is quite liable to “mix,” neither sweet corn 
nor pop-corn should be planted near field varieties. 

Of such moment to trade is the correct inspection and 
grading of corn that both state and national governments 
take part in it. The amount of moisture in the grain proves 
to be an important feature. A variation of even two or 
three per cent may fit it for some purposes and unfit it 
for others. 

More than one hundred different kinds of article are 
manufactured from the corn plant. The outer part of the 
stalk may be made into paper. The pith is employed as 
bulkheads in battleships; also in the manufacture of varnish, 
gun cotton and other articles. Mattresses are made from 
the husks. Corn supplies the material for nearly all of 
the starch, and large quantities of the glucose, alcohol and 
whisky made in the United States. From the germ there 
is extracted an oil called corn-oil which has been found 
valuable in making a substitute for India rubber. It is 
made into rubber gloves, boots, hot water bags, and the 
cheaper grades of rubber. The oil proves useful also in 
soap factories. 

Even the cobs have been found of worth. When 
mixed with highly-concentrated grains and ground, they- 
possess certain advantages as stock feed. Large quan¬ 
tities of cobs are used, also, in the manufacture of corn¬ 
cob pipes. 

Among the best-known manufactured food products^ 
from corn are hominy, flaked hominy, hominy grits, corn- 
meal (yellow and white) and corn starch. All of these 
are made from the ripe grain which has been well dried. 
As the outer coating on the kernel is extremely tough and 
indigestible, it is generally taken off by the use of chem¬ 
icals before the corn is dried. For this purpose wood- 
ashes have long been known in the making of old-fashioned 
lye-hominy. 

Sweet corn, although gathered unripe, in the soft, 
milky state, may be kept for winter use by drying, salting 
or canning. 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


• *4 


Cornmeal mush, boiled hominy, cornstarch puddings, 
and other dishes made from fully ripened grain are heating 
to the system. So it is wise to serve them in winter rather 
than in summer. As corn is somewhat lacking in proteid, 
it should be used with milk, or similar food. Cornbread 
and buttermilk, a favorite combination in the South, forms 
a hygienic lunch. 

Corn, because lacking in gluten, can not be made alone 
into loaf-bread with yeast. The meal may be used for this 
purpose, however, if mixed with a rather large amount of 
good wheat flour. For small breads raised with baking 
powder or similar mixtures, cornmeal is very suitable. A 
number of the old-time corn breads are made without leav¬ 
ening. This method applies to the Mexican national bread, 
thin corn cakes, called “tortillasalso to the hoe-cake and 
corn dodgers which are still made as they were by the 
first colonists, who learned these dishes from the Indians. 

OATS. 

Chemical Composition. 

Carbohydrates 59.1, cellulose 12., proteid 10.9, water 
10., fat 4.5, mineral matter 3.5. 

It is thought that this grain was first cultivated by the 
peoples of Northern and Central Europe, but not until 
many years after wheat had become well known. Oats 
have an advantage over wheat in thriving in a cold climate. 

Oatmeal and rolled oats are the two best known food 
preparations manufactured from oats. This grain contains 
much starch and fat, hence gives heat to the body, and is 
well suited to the winter’s diet. If eaten in summer, the 
amount should be small, else it is likely to cause a rash 
similar to prickly heat. It is wise to use very little, or no 
sugar on oatmeal, for the reason that sugar adds to the 
heating properties of the dish. When served with milk, 
oatmeal forms a strengthening and cheap food. It is best 
suited to those living an active out door life. 

If oatmeal is thoroughly cooked, it forms an advan¬ 
tageous article of diet for rapidly-growing children. It 
appears to aid in forming strong teeth, and a well-developed 
bony structure throughout the body. 

On account of a lack of gluten, oats do not supply 
material suitable for making loaf bread. Oatmeal may, 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


15 


however, be mixed with wheat flour, for bread raised with 
either yeast or baking- powder. The Scotch have a com¬ 
monly used form of unleavened oat bread. This, one of 
the primitive breads, is spread out in a thin sheet on a 
griddle and baked until crisp. It has the advantage of 
being both palatable and nutritious. 

The straw from oats is used in making coarse paper 
and pasteboard; also, as packing material, mattress filling,, 
and fodder and bedding for animals. 

RYE. 

Chemical Composition. 

Carbohydrates 72.3, water 11., proteid 10.2, fat 2.3, 
cellulose 2.1, mineral matter 2.1. 

Rye may be grown on soils too poor for any other 
grain. It will ripen in colder regions than will most of 
the cereals, but produces best in latitudes suited to wheat. 
Russia is the great rye-producing country of the world. 

As a food material, rye is commonly used in the shape 
of rye flour and rye middlings. Either of these may be 
cooked as a gruel. 

Middlings forms an ingredient of Boston brown bread. 
In the United States rye flour is used mainly for making 
rve bread, but this meets with less ready sale than wheat 
bread. The colonists of New England, however, long made 
from rye and cornmeal a bread called “rye and Indian.’’ 
Abroad, rye ranks close to wheat as a bread-stuff. It forms 
the basis of the peasant’s bread of Europe, the Germans 
making an especially dark form known as pumpernickel. 

For persons taking but little exercise, rye bread proves: 
more beneficial than bread made from fine wheat flour. 

The straw from rye has much the same uses as that 
from oats. The rye straw, however, is longer and tougher. 
In our Eastern States, many farmers grow rye for the 
straw rather than for the grain. 

RICE. 

Chemical Composition. 

Carbohydrates 79.4, water 12.4, proteid 6.9, mineral 
matter 0.5, cellulose 0.4, fat 0.4. 

Although there are many varieties of rice, they may 
all be classed as (1) upland, known also as dry or mountain 
rice, and (2) lowland or wet rice. The former can thrive 


l6 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

with but little moisture. Lowland rice grows well only 
on lands which are occasionally flooded. This variety forms 
the great bulk of the world’s rice crop. 

One half of the human race use rice as their princip d 
food; and it has been cultivated in the East from very 
remote times. Of such value is this cereal in China that 
for over four thousand years, the various emperors, : n 
order to encourage the industry, have gone to the rice 
fields once each year, and sown some rice with their 
imperial hands. 

Rice was not grown in the United States until about 
the end of the eighteenth century, South Carolina being 
the first state to plant it. The culture spread so rapidly 
that before the Civil War rice had become one of the 
staple products of the country. Since the abolition ot 
slavery, it has been difficult to obtain help in caring for 
the crop, and the quantity planted now is small. Louisiana 
and Texas are at present the two largest rice producing 
states; but the grain is inferior to that of the South Caro¬ 
lina rice, which has always been noted for its fine appear¬ 
ance and good cooking qualities. 

Within recent years, machinery used in the cultivation 
of wheat has been adjusted to suit rice. By this means, the 
crop is managed more easily than in former times. 

After the harvesting, the grain in the husk or “paddy’' 
is taken to the rice mills. Here the husk and bran are 
removed, and the grains receive a polishing by rubbing 
against each other in a large revolving cylinder. Thus there 
is produced a white, glistening kernel of almost pure starch. 

Because, rice contains scarcely any fat, it proves a 
suitable food for summer use. 

Rice is found to be very easily digested. If thoroughly 
cooked, it may in many cases be allowed to invalids or 
children with whom other cereals do not agree. 

Besides its value as a food material, rice has other 
important commercial uses. Rice starch is made in con¬ 
siderable amount and used in laundries and muslin factories. 
Rice polish and rice bran prove to be quite good feeding 
stuffs for animals. Rice hulls are used as packing about 
breakable articles. The Asiatics make intoxicating liquors 
from the rice grain. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


17 


BARLEY. 

Chemical Composition. 

Carbohydrates 69.5, water 12.3, proteid 10.1, cellulose 
3.8, fat 1.9, mineral matter 2.4. 

Barley is said to have been the first grain cultivated 
by mankind. Evidently the ancient Egyptians raised it, 
for we are told in Exodous, that the noted plague of hail 
injured the barley. Among the Romans it was highly 
valued, being one of the special foods used by gladiators. 
Probably all of the early peoples made bread from barley 
and it continued to be the chief bread plant of Europe until 
the sixteenth century. The Scotch peasants still have their 
barley bannocks. In Japan, a staple food is prepared from 
soy-bean and barley. Americans seldom use it except in 
soup or to make a nutritious drink for invalids. 

Barley thrives in a wider range of climate than will 
any other grain, being grown as far north as Iceland and 
as far south as India. 

Brewers use barley to a great extent. It is of much 
value also in the manufacture of commercial yeast. 

In many parts of the world barley forms an approved 
feeding-stuff, especially for horses. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

Chemical Composition. 

Carbohydrates 61.3, water 13., cellulose 11.1, proteid 
10.2, fat 2.2, mineral matter 2.2. 

At first buckwheat was called beechwheat, because its 
three-sided seeds were shaped like the beech-nut. The 
name blackwheat has also been given it, on account of the 
outer color of the seed. 

Buckwheat is sometimes grown for the use of bees in 
honey making. Japanese buckwheat proves especially good 

for this purpose. 

In Russia, buckwheat porridge has a place among the 
staple foods. In the United States the grain is generally 
ground into flour, in which form it is well known as the 
main ingredient of buckwheat cakes. These, having long 
been popular in Holland, were probably introduced here by 

the Dutch. 


l8 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

Bakers like buckwheat flour for sprinkling bread boards 
because it does not become so sticky as wheat flour. 

Wheat middlings are often used to adulterate 
buckwheat flour; and a pure form of the flour is now diffi¬ 
cult to obtain. 

The grain of buckwheat, also the green plant and the 
straw are used to some extent in feeding farm animals. 

Readings:—Breakfast Foods, Bulletin No. 162, Ontario 
Department of Agriculture; Corn Plants (F. L. Sargent), 
Food Products of the World (Greene), chap, xviii, un 
'‘Cereals;” Home Life in Colonial Days (Earle), chap, vi, 
on “Indian Corn,” Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 37, p. 
827, on “Rice and Its Culture;” Anthropology (Tyler), p. 
215; Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture (Mason), pp. 
18-23; 36, 142-144; 261-262. 

POTATOES. 

Chemical Composition. 

Water 75.5, starch 20.7, proteid 2., mineral matter 1., 
cellulose 0.8. 

The potato, usually called the Irish potato, the com¬ 
mon potato, or the white potato, is thought to be native 
to the mountainous districts which extend from Chile to 
Mexico. 

It was cultivated and used as food by the early tribes 
before the discovery of America. The Spaniards, in the 
sixteenth century, took it from Peru to Europe, where it 
was planted in gardens as a curiositv. Sir Walter Raleigh 
thought it such an odd growth that he brought it to the 
knowledge of Queen Elizabeth. In Scotland, manv persons 
objected to the vegetable for religious reasons, saying thit 
the Bible made no mention of the potato. At first it was 
believed to be a food fit only for swine and cattle. Later, 
people decided that on account of its gre^t yield it might 
be a good food for the poor in times of famine due to 
failure of the grain crops. Its cultivation first became 
general in Ireland—whence its name. Very little is known 
about the history of the potato plant as a North American 
crop. From an early period, the Indians have used the 
wild potato, but they seem to know nothing of its culti¬ 
vation. About the time of the Revolutionary War, the 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


19 


colonists appear to have had only two varieties, a white 
and a red. Today, it is not unusual for experiment stations 
to make tests on several hundred varieties at one time. 

The part of the plant used is the underground stems, 
called tubers, which are fastened to the root. 

Potatoes usually grow entirely underground, but some¬ 
times the earth is washed away, or they grow close to the 
surface. In such cases, a green color develops. They are 
then called sunburned, and have an unpleasant bitter flavor. 
Any green portion should be cut away before cooking o.r 
the potato may prove unwholesome. 

When one wishes to keep old potatoes from sprouting 
and withering, they may be placed in boiling water for a 
few moments. The heat kills the sprouts. Potatoes so 
treated should be spread out on a flat surface, and dried 
thoroughly before being stored away. They remain almost 
as good as new until new potatoes come into market. 
Dealers often treat them in this way in order to obtain 
high prices in the spring. 

Although the potato is considered a starchy vegetable, 
it contains only about 20 per cent of starch. On account 
of its large amount of water—over 75 per cent—the potato 
may be cooked by the dry heat of baking, quite as readily 
as by boiling. The starch of a baked potato really cooks 
in the vegetable juice. 

Baking is one of the most economical and healthful 
ways of cooking potatoes, because the tough skin seals all 
of the nutritious matter within. When preparing potatoes 
for baking, the skin should never be cut, as this allows some 
of the juice to escape. 

Boiling, with their “jackets” on, is almost as econom¬ 
ical as baking. When pared before boiling, some of the 
nutriment dissolves in the water during the cooking. Loss 
occurs also if potatoes, after being pared, are allowed to 
soak long in water. An exception may be made of old, 
waxy potatoes, which are improved by soaking before cook¬ 
ing, as this method draws out some of the gummy sub¬ 
stance which is objectionable. 


20 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


When removing the skins from potatoes, the paring 
should be as thin as possible, both to prevent general waste 
and because the proteid of which the potato contains very- 
little, lies directly under the skin. 

Fried potatoes, even though carefully cooked, can not 
be considered wholesome. The particles of starch, being 
coated with grease, are not acted upon readily by the 
digestive juices. Besides, in the hot grease there is devel¬ 
oped an irritant acid, which frequently causes indigestion. 

Since potatoes contain no fat, and very little proteid, 
they should be used with fatty foods, as butter, cream, or 
bacon, and with proteids, as milk, cheese, eggs or meat. 

Aside from its usefulness as a food, the potato has 
considerable commercial value. Its starch, being a cheat} 
form, is used in the manufacture of laundry starch, and 
of dextrin (the sticky substance placed 017 the back of 
postage stamps). Potato starch forms the basis of com¬ 
mercial glucose, which is made in very large quantities. 

SWEET POTATO. 

Among civilized nations, the sweet potato was known 
long before the Irish potato. Indeed, until about the middle 
of the seventeenth century, whenever the word potato was 
used, it meant the sweet potato. This does not belong to 
the same botanical family as the Irish potato. The sweet 
potato is the true root of the plant. In composition, it 
differs from the Irish potato mainly in containing sugar. 
Probably this is one of the reasons—since sugar readily 
absorbs water—that sweet potatoes must be stored in a di\ r 
place. If kept where it is damp, they soon become moldy 
or rot. For winter use they should be packed in cotton seed, 
sawdust, bran or dry sand; and they must be “bone dry'’ 
when put away. 

Sweet potatoes may be cooked and served in much 
the same ways as Irish potatoes. 

The yam closely resembles the sweet potato in color, 
flavor, texture, and to some extent in general appearance. 
It is the fleshy, edible root of a plant growing originally 
in India, where it has been cultivated for centuries. In all 
varieties the size is large, 20 lbs. being no unusual weight. 
Thus the crop is difficult to gather, needing careful dig- 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


21 


ging\ In our Southern States, the name yam is commonly 
given to several large kinds of sweet potatoes which contain 
much sugar and are better liked than those having more 
starch. 

Readings:—Food Products of the World (Greene), 
chap, xxii, on “Tubers and Succulent Roots;” Home Life 
in Colonial Days (Earle), pp. 144-145 ; Potatoes as Food, 
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 295. 

SUGAR. 

The main sources of sugar are the sugar cane, sugar 
beet, and sugar maple. It occurs also in honey, in most 
fruits, and in some vegetables. 

Nearly all of the world’s supply of sugar is obtained 
from the sugar cane and the sugar beet, each furnishing 
about half of the amount. 

CANE SUGAR. 

Cuba leads the world in the production of cane sugar, 
while Java is a close second. In the United States, Louis¬ 
iana produces a large amount—about one-third as much 
as Cuba. 

The sugar cane is a strong-stemmed grass, which 
sometimes grows as high as 20 ft. It is native in the East 
Indies. The Crusaders brought it to Europe. In the fif¬ 
teenth and sixteenth centuries it was planted by the col¬ 
onists in the warmer regions of America. 

Just before the plant flowers, the juice in the stem is 
sweetest and in greatest amount. At this time the cane is 
cut, the work being done by hand, with the use of a cane 
knife or “machete.” Thus far, machine cutting has not 
been a success. 

As the juice quickly ferments, at a loss of sugar, the 
cane, immediately after cutting, is started for the mill. Flere 
it passes under a series of heavy rollers, which press out 
the juice. This, after being boiled down to a rather thick 
syrup, is allowed to cool, and part of it separates out in the 
form of crystals. This is called raw sugar. It has a brown 
color, and coarse texture, and contains many impurities. 
To remove these it is passed through bone charcoal. There 
are also many other processes in refining the sugar. 


22 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


The liquid portion which will not crystallize, and which 
is drained off the raw sugar, is known as molasses. In the 
old time “sugar house” or “open kettle” molasses much of 
the sugar remained in the liquid. Such molasses was rich 
and of fine flavor. Scarcely any of this kind is made now. 
Manufacturers of the present day let the molasses stand 
for weeks or even months. Thus they obtain a second 
and sometimes a third grade of sugar. Finally the molasses 
becomes so poor that it is used as a fertilizer or thrown 
away. There is on the market, an imitation molasses, made 
from glucose, to which a little true syrup is added for 
giving color and flavor. 

In making granulated sugar, raw sugar syrup, after 
being purified, is put into large cylinders which revolve 
rapidly, thus keeping the sugar stirred up and “grainy.” 
The syrup which drains off these crystals is clear and of 
a more delicate flavor than molasses, and is called table 
syrup. 

Loaf sugar, one of the purest forms of sugar, takes its 
name from the high, rounded molds into which the syrup 
is run. After hardening, and being sawed by machinery 
into smooth blocks, it becomes known as cut loaf, or block: 
sugar. A poorer grade is made by pressing granulated 
sugar into cubes. This may be detected by the very regular 
size and smooth surface of the blocks. 

Pulverized sugar is obtained by grinding the broken 
pieces which remain after sawing the loaf sugar. Pul¬ 
verized sugar seldom appears nowadays in an adulterated 
form. It tastes less sweet than most other classes of sugar, 
merely because its very fine particles do not readily impress 
the nerves of taste. 

SORGHUM. 

Certain kinds of sorghum—a plant belonging to the 
grasses—yield a sweet juice which was formerly used 
largely in making syrup. Except in our Southwestern 
States, this is seldom seen in the markets at the present 
time, a cheap form of glucose having taken its place. 

Although the National Department of Agriculture has 
made many experiments on sorghum, it does not thus far 
rank as an important sugar yielding plant. There are two 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. * 


23 


main reasons for this, one being the low sweetening powe v 
of sorghum, and the other, the difficulty of purifying its 
juice. 

Home-made sorghum syrup is very satisfactory for 
cooking purposes, both by reason of its flavor and of its 
acid reaction with baking soda. In these ways it is far 
superior to the glucose product. 

BEET SUGAR. 

The beet used for sugar manufacture was, at first, not 
different from the common garden beet, but by carefui 
selection and culture, through many years, the sugar beet 
has become changed in various ways. Not only does it yield 
more per acre, but its sugar content is much higher man 
in former times. The average yield of sugar from beets 
in the United States is 13 per cent, but there have been 
many produced which give as high as 23 per cent. 

For several years, the National Department of Agri¬ 
culture has been experimenting on the beet seed, the desire 
being to improve the seed itself and to increase the home 
supply so that our country need not depend on imported 
seed. 

The sugar beet industry of the United States is con¬ 
stantly gaining in importance. At present, California, 
Michigan, Colorado, Arizona and Utah raise large crops. 

Beet sugar was first manufactured in the early part 
of the nineteenth century in Germany and France. The 
industry still flourishes in both of these countries. The 
sugar beet crop is important also in Russia and in several 
other parts of Europe. 

In fact, only about a century’s time has been needed 
to prove this homely kitchen-garden vegetable a powerful 
rival of the “noble plant” which formerly made fortunes 
for English and Spanish colonists. 

After the beets are harvested, they are taken to the 
sugar factory. Here they pass over stone catchers, which 
separate stones and coarse bits of dirt from the beets. 
They are then well washed, cut into thin strips or slices 
and placed in water—heated to a certain temperature—for 
one hour. The sugar from the beets dissolves out into the 
water. Lime is used to remove impurities. The juice also 


24 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


needs to be filtered, cleared and boiled at a low tempera¬ 
ture to drive off surplus liquid, when the sugar will finally 
form into crystals. The entire process requires great care. 

From the chemist’s standpoint, the sugar obtained from 
the beet and the cane are alike. When the two sugars have 
been carefully refined, no difference can be detected in 
either appearance or flavor. They are both made into 
exactly the same forms of sugar for trade use. The house¬ 
keeper finds, nevertheless, that canned fruits keep better 
with the addition of cane sugar than with beet sugar. 
Table molasses is not manufactured from the sugar beet, 
because no way has been found of removing the impurities, 
and the molasses has an unpleasant flavor. It is generally 
counted a waste product, and used as a fertilizer, or made 
into alcohol. The pulp, another by-product, forms a valu¬ 
able cattle food. It may be used fresh, preserved in silos 
or dried. 

MAPLE SUGAR. 

This sugar is obtained from the sap of certain kinds 
of maple trees, the sugar or rock maple being most com¬ 
monly used for this purpose in the East, and the red or 
swamp maple in the West. 

In our country the tree grows mostly in Vermont, 
New York and Ohio. Canada, also, has many a “sugar 
bush,” as any thicket of such trees is colloquially called, 
although the terms orchard, grove, place and works are 
sometimes used. 

During the early spring, just before the buds start, the 
trees are tapped. Warm days with frosty nights make 
ideal sugar weather. The length of the season is always 
uncertain because even a few very warm days will start 
the buds and foliage, and after this the sap becomes small 
in quantity, and of a poor flavor. 

In tapping the trees, a hole is bored in each a short 
distance above the ground. There is then driven into the 
hole a small wooden trough or a galvanized iron pipe, 
through which the sap may flow. It is led into pails whose 
contents are collected each morning and evening. 

The sooner the sap is boiled after leaving the tree, the 
better the grade of syrup. Hence, a place for cooking it, 
generally called a “sugar camp” is arranged near the grove. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


25 


Methods of boiling down have much improved since the 
time of the early colonists who found the Indians boiling 
the sap by means of hot stones dropped into it. Now, after 
the sap is boiled in vacuum pans to the thickness desired, 
it is generally run at once into cans which are then sealed 
air-tight. For sugar, the sap receives longer boiling, and 
is stirred briskly until graining begins, when it is poured 
into molds to harden. 

In general, the sap yields about 3 per cent of sugar. 
The clearest and best flavored sap is obtained early in the 
season. From it, light-colored sugar and syrup are made. 
These, called “first-run” bring the best price. The poorest 
grades, dark and strong, are used in the manufacture of 
chewing tobacco. 

As the supply of maple products is small compared to 
the demand, persons living at a distance from a sugar maple 
region frequently have difficulty in obtaining a pure article. 
Both the syrup and sugar are often adulterated with brown 
sugar. As our pure food laws require correct labels, the 
manufacturers of mixed products cleverly print on their 
cans “MAPLE and cane SYRUP” or “cane and MAPLE 
SYRUP.” The former title is used when the amount of 
maple is fairly large, while the latter shows that there is 
much cane. In either case, a careless buyer, who glances 
only at the prominent words, supposes that she is obtaining 
true maple syrup. 


HONEY. 

The ancients knew nothing of sugar, and used honey 
altogether for sweetening. Thus, it was of much more 
importance than it is now. For instance, the Hebrew spies, 
in praising Canaan described it as a land “that flowerh 
with milk and honey.” Again, the gods of ancient mythol¬ 
ogy were thought to use as their beverage a mixture of 
honey and water. Even after cane sugar began to be manu¬ 
factured, many persons thought honey the more whole¬ 
some for general use and took sugar only as a medicine. 

The flavor of honey varies with the source from which 
the bees obtain the nectar. While clover honey is generally 
taken as the standard for excellence, linden, basswood and 


26 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


white locust honey are pleasing. In very warm, dry sea¬ 
sons, alfalfa is satisfactory. Buckwheat has rather a 
decided flavor which some persons dislike. 

.Age affects the flavor of honey. As a rule, the newest 
and best is clear, light in color, and contained in white 
comb. Older honey usually grows dark, and sometimes 
crystals form,, making it cloudy and thick. Honey should 
be kept in a dry place. When damp it becomes thin and 
mav sour. Freezing causes the comb to crack and the 
honey oozes out. 

Honey is sold either in the comb, or extracted from ik 
This latter form can not always be found pure. It is often 
adulterated with starch glucose. Another grade inferior 
to pure extracted honey is called strained honey. For this, 
broken combs may be used. 

Although in the United States, honey is eaten mainly 
on account of its flavor, it has quite a high food value. 
It pioves, also, somewhat more digestible than cane sugar. 
These facts are known to Alpine climbers who carry with 
them on their journeys, cheese • and honey—both foods 
giving much nourishment in small bulk. 

GRAPE SUGAR, MILK SUGAR AND OTHER SWEET SUBSTANCES. 

Among other less well-known sugars are grape sugar 
and milk sugar. The latter, obtained from milk, is not so 
sweet as cane sugar. It is used in certain foods for infants 
and invalids, and in medicine—being familiar in the pellets 
of the homeopathist. 

Grape sugar may sometimes be seen as a pale yellow 
grainy substance on the outside of dried fruits—raisins in 
particular. It occurs mostly on those which have been kept 
for a long time after drying. Glucose is another name 
used for grape sugar. However, the term glucose, or com¬ 
mercial glucose is generally given to a kind of sugar man¬ 
ufactured from starch. It also bears the name of starch 
sugar. In Europe this is made from the potato, in America, 
from corn. The industry has grown to be a large and 
important one. 

Commercial glucose is made in two forms, dry and 
liquid. The latter form, a colorless thick syrup meets with 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


27 


ready sale among confectioners. They use it because in 
cooking it does not become grainy as cane sugar is likely 
to do. 

For some two thousand years there has been made in 
Japan a sweet substance called ame. This is produced 
from starch—usually that of rice or millet—by the action 
of a ferment. There are two forms, a clear yellowish 
liquid, and a solid somewhat resembling white candy. 

The material named saccharine has a much greater 
sweetening power than sugar. It is, however, not a sugar, 
but a coal-tar product. Because such minute amounts are 
heeded for sweetening, it is sometimes allowed in certain 
diseases where sugar would be injurious. Persons in 
health should not substitute saccharine for sugar, since the 
human system can not use saccharine as a source of heat. 
When manufacturers add it to canned goods to take the 
place of-part, or all, of the sugar, it must be considered 
an adulterant. 

EFFECTS OF SUGAR ON THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 

Sugar, like starch, furnishes heat in the body. Of tjje 
two substances, sugar is the more easily dissolved, and can 
be made use of more quickly by the system. 

If a person eats a larger amount of sugar than the 
body needs at the time, the surplus is stored up in the form 
of fat. It has been said that the negroes of the West 
Indies grow fat during the sugar season, when they chew 
the cane as they work. 

Possibly most Americans eat more sugar than is good 
for the health. Experiments go to prove that four ounces— 
about four rounded tablespoonsful—daily is the largest 
quantity that can be taken without injury. For many per¬ 
sons, a smaller amount is wise. Should much sugar be 
eaten at one time, its ill effects are often shown by. a rash 
on the face. Candy is least likely to prove injurious if taken 
at the end of a meal. It should never be eaten shortly 
before meal time, because the sugar, being quickly absorbed, 
satisfies the appetite for awhile, and thus one does not take 
enough substantial food at the following meal. 

Some physicians sav that the “sweet-tooth” of children 
shows a natural and healthy craving—the sugar being 


28 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


needed in their rapid growth. Rock-candy and home-made 
molasses candy are wholesome sweets, if used in modera¬ 
tion. Both children and grown persons do well to avoid 
any highly-colored cheap candies, as such have often been 
found to be injurious and sometimes even poisonous. 

THE COOKING OF SUGAR. 

The longer sugar is cooked, the less sweet it becomes. 
Hence, when making desserts or cooking fruit needing 
sugar, it should be added as near to the end of the process 
as possible. 

If sugar be put in a pan, without any water or other 
liquid and heated on a stove, the sugar gradually melts, 
turning to a brown syrup, which has little or no sweetness. 
It is then called caramel (not caramels), and may be used 
as a coloring and flavoring in soups and sauces. 

It is curious to note that although at the present age 
the yearly output of candy is worth many millions of dol¬ 
lars, the article was scarcely known until the beginning of 
the nineteenth century. Previously candy had been made 
chiefly by physicians or apothecaries who mingled honey 
and sugar with medicines in order to conceal any unpleas¬ 
ant taste. 

Readings: Sugar as Food, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 93; 
The Fairy Land of Science (Buckley), pp. 193-235; Home 
Life in Colonial Days (Earle), pp. 110-114; 155-158; Out¬ 
ing for October, 1907, on “Hunting the Wild Honey Bee;’’ 
Scientific American Supplement, August 10, 1907. 

FAT. 

Fatty or oily foods are obtained from animals and 
plants. Broadly speaking, it may be said that animals 
supply fat, and plants oil. The main difference between 
fats and oils is that the latter are liquid and the former 
solid. However, a substance may appear as a fat at a low 
temperature and as an oil at a high temperature. Thus, 
butter which is a solid during cold weather, becomes oily 
during the heat of summer. 

The fats used as food are contained mainly in meat, 
poultry, fish, game, cream, butter, olives, olive oil, cotton- 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


2 9 


seed oil, nuts, and chocolate; certain kinds of cheese have 
much fat. It occurs also in the cereals and in the yolk of 

egg- 

Fatty foods are of value to the human body in supply¬ 
ing material for heat and energy. Thus, they act in the 
same way as starch and sugar. Fat, however, gives about 
21-4 times as much heat as starch. For this reason, one 
should use, during winter, a larger amount of fatty foods 
than in summer. The Eskimo child, so travelers tell us, 
contentedly munches on whale bubble the livelong dav. 
(This is more sensible than the chewing gum habit of the 
American child.) 

Any fatty food which is not needed at once in the 
body goes to build up fatty tissue. It .is well to have a 
reserve supply, as in case of fever or other wasting dis¬ 
ease the fat burns up first and thus saves the muscular 
tissue. The reserve fuel is useful also when the body must 
endure severe or long-continued cold. 

Fats in the diet assist in keeping the lungs healthv. 
The natural work of these organs is to cast off waste matter 
from the fatty foods and carbohydrates. Like every other 
part of the body the lungs must have exercise. So, when 
they seem to be diseased, the physician at once prescribes 
cod-liver oil, cream, butter or similar articles. Since pre¬ 
vention is better than cure, it would be wise for Americans 
to take more of the fatty foods in their regular diet. 

Fats aid also in keeping the nerves in good order. 
The nerves contain a greater proportion of fat than the 
body in general. It is a well-known fact that fat person* 
are seldom nervous. Perhaps their nerves give no trouble 
because well-fed and healthy. 

Acid fruits and vegetables are believed to aid in the 
digestion of fat, as the acid separates the globules of fat, 
making a sort of emulsion. For this reason, cranberry 
sauce is served with roast turkey, and apple sauce with 
pork. Likewise, sauer kraut is used with meat by the 
Germans. 

In cooking fatty foods, the heat should never be greater 
than necessary. When fats become very hot, they prove 
irritating to the digestive organs, often causing a person 
to have indigestion or heartburn. Thus, rich cakes and 


3° 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


pies can not be classed as wholesome foods. It is probable 
that apple, cherry, or other acid fruit pies are the least 
objectionable. 

Of all the fatty substances used in cooking, olive oil 
is by far the most delicate. Unfortunately, many Amer¬ 
icans do not like its flavor. Yet the taste appears to be 
growing, perhaps because of the fine quality of oil put out 
by various California firms. Nor have our people in gen¬ 
eral learned to eat the ripe olive in which the percentage of 
oil is high. The green olive, meeting with ready sale, 
contains much less nutriment. 

In the United States, the culture of the olive is scarcely 
known outside of California, but in that state it forms a 
large industry. Olive trees were first raised in California 
by the early Jesuit missionaries who also brought the plant 
to Mexico. For long ages the olive has been cultivated 
both for the fruit and its oil in the regions about the 
Mediterranean. If intended for oil, the olives need 
to be picked when slightly under-ripe. The fruit must not 
be bruised, nor allowed to stand long after picking—else 
the color and flavor of the oil will be poor. The fruit is 
crushed and pressed much like apples in making cider. 
There are several pressings. The oil from the first, called 
virgin oil, has the finest flavor. In Italy, Spain and south¬ 
ern France, olive oil is used in nearly all those dishes which 
need some form of fat. 

Cottonseed oil is now so well refined that it competes 
with olive oil in delicacy of flavor. For general cooking 
purposes, cottonseed oil, mainly because of its cheapness, 
takes the lead in the United States. It is often shipped to 
Europe, there put into bottles labeled “pure olive oil,” and 
returned to this country to sell at a price much above its 
first cost. 

The fish canneries on both our Atlantic and Pacific 
coasts use immense quantities of cottonseed oil; while it is 
sold to more than forty foreign nations. 

Cottonseed oil mixed with suet forms cottolene, cotto- 
suet, and similar manufactured articles. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


31 


It is interesting to note that cottonseed, which formerly 
was. thought a nuisance by the farmer and used only as a 
fertilizer, or burned, may now bring one dollar or over 
for a hundred pounds, at the cotton gin, and is much more 
valuable when made into oil, oil-cake, etc. 

Fats and oils are useful preservatives of many foods, 
on account of keeping out air, and preventing dryness and 
putrefaction. Sardines are a well known example of fish 
preserved in this way. Layers of lard have long been used 
to protect jars of potted meat, sausage, etc. A coating 
of melted fat is sometimes applied to eggs to keep them 
for future use. 


BUTTER. 

Chemical Composition. 

Fat 93., water 5.34, mineral matter .95, proteid .71. 

Before the Christian era, butter had been given a place 
among foods; but in early days, it was used mostly as a 
salve for wounds, or as an ointment for the skin after bath¬ 
ing. Also, it was burned in lamps instead of oil. 

The ancients made butter from the milk of sheep or 
goats. It was churned in a skin bag which was hung to 
the branch of a tree and swung back and forth until the 
butter formed. This butter must have been a very poor 
article. It was not solid, but liquid, as old writers speak 
of pouring it out. 

Only within recent years has butter become a stap'e 
article of food. In southern Europe, it is still not used 
to a great extent, as oil from olives and other sources takes 
its place. Denmark ranks at present as the great butter 
exporting country of the world, while Holland stands a 
close second. (Both of these countries buy large amounts 
of our cottonseed oil for adding to butter which they ship 
to India and other tropical climates.) In the United States, 
the growth of the butter industry has been rapid since the 
introduction of the creamery system. The most noted but¬ 
ter producing states of the present day are Minnesota, 
Wisconsin, Iowa and Nebraska. Illinois formerly had a 
valuable output, but of late the milk-condensing interests 
of the state have lessened the manufacture of butter. 


32 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


From whatever source butter is obtained it consists 
chiefly of the fat of milk, with a little water, proteid and 
mineral matter. But no two makers ever turn out butUr 
exactly alike. It may vary greatly in texture, flavor or 
color. For each of these variations there are many causes. 
The texture is often affected by the method of churning, 
by the temperature, or by the food which has been given to 
the animals. (Cottonseed meal, if fed in liberal amount,, 
causes a crumbly butter.) 

In large factories, the flavor is kept alike at all times 
by putting into cream a certain kind of bacteria. The flavor 
of home-made butter may be unpleasant if the cream has 
been stored near fish, onions, or other articles having a 
decided odor. 

With the natural color of butter, although it is pale n 
winter, we should be satisfied. Unfortunately, most per¬ 
sons like to see, at all seasons of the year, a bright golden 
yellow. This shade, so far, has been produced only from 
aniline, which is prohibited by law. Nevertheless, butter 
of this color may still be found in markets. The old-fasn- 
ioned dye, annatto, obtained from the seed of a Brazilian 
plant gives a less pleasing tinge, but is not unhealthful. 

In the United States butter made from sour cream is 
generally liked better than that from sweet cream. Also, 
the yield of butter is somewhat greater from sour cream 
than from an equal amount of sweet cream. In our coun¬ 
try, most persons prefer butter to which salt has been added. 
Abroad, unsalted, or “sweet” butter is considered the better. 
Cream used in making such butter must be well cared foi 
and free from any unpleasant odor and flavor. Unsalted 
butter is likely to turn rancid more quickly than that which 
has been salted. In packed butter, salt is largely used as 
a preservative. It checks the changes in the proteid (casein) 
and in the fatty acids which spoil the flavor. Sugar has 
about the same effect as salt. It is said that butter covered 
with syrup will keep even better than when salted. 

If butter becomes rancid; it may be somewhat improved 
by melting and shaking with boiling water. This causes the 
casein and fatty acid to separate out. The mixture should 
then be chilled at once, either by pouring ice water into 
it, or by putting it into a very cold place. When the butter 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


33 


gathers in a cake at the top, it should be taken off, and the 
bottom of the mass scraped to remove the casein clinging 
to it. Butter treated in this way will not regain its grain. 

As a rule tub butter sells for a lower price than print 
butter, because less time is required in packing. Creameries 
located in small towns, or in country districts usually put 
out print butter and tub butter of the same grade. The 
latter is then an economical form to buy. However, in large 
cities tub butter often proves to be of poor quality, as, while 
plentiful and cheap during the summer, large dealers place 
• it in cold storage and do not offer it for sale until winter, 
when a higher price may be obtained. 

Renovated butter is made in great amounts from dif¬ 
ferent grades of poor butter. These are all mixed together, 
melted and allowed to stand until the curd settles. The 
mass is then re-churned with milk, colored, salted and 
packed. It commonly takes the name cooking or factory 
butter, and often brings nearly as much the pound as good 
butter. By reason of the impurities held in it, renovated 
butter easily becomes rancid. 

Oleomargarine is generally made from cottonseed oil, 
purified beef or pork fat, and milk, with a little butter (to 
give flavor). These are churned together, and the mixture 
is salted. The present law does not allow artificial coloring 
although it was formerly added. This rule has lessened its 
sale considerably. All of the ingredients for oleomargarine 
are prepared with care, and chemists sav that it is much 
more cleanly than the average butter, and, for this reason, 
perhaps more wholesome. Another feature in its favor is 
the fact that it does not grow rancid so readily as butter 
does. Being made of cheaper materials than butter, oleo¬ 
margarine should be sold for a lower price. One of the 
main objections to its use has been that manufacturers often 
endeavor to sell it as true butter, and thus obtain more 
than a just price. 

Instead of economizing by using a low priced butter 
for cooking, the wise housekeeper will substitute some 
cheaper form of fat. such as beef suet, cottonseed oil, or 
oleomargarine. Chicken or goose grease, if tried out care¬ 
fully, answer very well in preparing meats, meat sauces, 
vegetables and soups. 


34 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Readings: Butter Making on the Farm, Farmers’ Bul¬ 
letin No. 241; Food Products of the World, (Greene), 
chap. XVII., on Vegetable Fats and Oils; also pp. 233-237; 
Milk and Its Products (Wing), pp. 94-162. 

MINERAL MATTER. 

Mineral matter, also called salts or ash, occurs in all 
parts of the body, but especially in the bones, teeth and 
hair. Since there are no foods entirely lacking in mineral 
matter, it is believed that the body obtains enough of such 
mineral from the average diet. As a rule, we add to our 
food only one mineral substance, common salt (sodium 
chloride). Baking powder, although it contains mineral 
matter, is used in such small amounts at a time that it does 
not rank as a food. 

Among the mineral matters found in the body, and 
which must be supplied by the food, are lime, iron, soda, 
chlorine, potash, phosphorus, etc. Altogether, these ele¬ 
ments number from fifteen to twenty. Lime occurs in the 
bones and teeth, iron gives the red color to the blood, soda 
strengthens the bile, chlorine helps to form the hydrochloric 
acid of the gastric juice, potash aids in building up the 
muscle cells, phosphorus is of much use to the nerves. Thus 
these mineral matters, though needed in only small amounts, 
are of great importance. 

For our supply of mineral matter, we look mainly to 
fruits and vegetables. 

WATER. 

Although water is not strictly a food, yet it forms nearly 
70 per cent of the human body. Without it, our lives would 
last for only a short time. 

One of its uses to the system is in regulating the temp¬ 
erature, surplus heat being thrown off in the perspiration. 
It keeps the blood liquid enough that poisonous waste mat¬ 
ter is not retained. (In the spring, after the usual rich 
heavy diet of winter, the blood is sometimes said to be “too 
thick." There are several old-fashioned remedies supposed 
to thin the blood, such as sassafras, sulphur and molasses, 
etc.) 

Water is necessary in the saliva and other digestive 
juices, in order that food may be readily dissolved. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


It also fills out the tissues of the body, thus improving 
the general appearance. 

Not less than three pints of water should be taken daily. 
It is wise to drink a glass of water before breakfast. The 
liquid rinses out the mucous which collects in the stomach 
during rest. If this mucous is allowed to remain, it inter¬ 
feres with digestion. 

In regard to the drinking of water at meals, most 
physicians say that a single glass can do no harm. Large 
quantities may dilute the digestive juices too much. Ice 
water, especially, should be taken—if at all—in small 
portions. 

Hard water, in particular that containing a large amount 
of mineral matter, can not be healthful for the average per¬ 
son. One of the main reasons for using water as a bever¬ 
age is that it may gather up impurities from the body. But 
water can dissolve only a certain amount of solid sub¬ 
stances. If in its natural state it already holds much mineral 
matter, it can then absorb only a small amount of waste 
from the system. Water made hard by lime may be espe¬ 
cially objectionable. The lime is said to collect about the 
joints of the body, causing stiffness. 

The source of drinking water is a matter of impor¬ 
tance. Cistern (rain) water, if carefully filtered, and from 
well-built, clean cisterns may usually be found wholesome. 
The features in its favor are its own purity, and following 
this, its ability to absorb impurities from the body. Of 
course, rain water which collects during the first part of 
a shower should not be allowed to run into the cistern. 
Such water may hold mechanical impurities or dust laden 
with disease germs. 

Well water from shallow, dug wells, must, in most 
cases, be regarded with suspicion. Such wells are seldom 
far enough from either dwelling or barn to be safe from 
top soil drainage. 

Artesian wells, by means of their great depth gener¬ 
ally furnish pure water. 

Most spring water may be regarded as pure. Some¬ 
times, however, it is unfit for drinking purposes on account 
of holding salt or other minerals in solution. 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 



When there is doubt about the purity of water, it 
should be boiled for fifteen minutes to destroy disease 
germs. This plan is especially wise when there are cases 
of typhoid in the vicinity. (In China, although the water 
supply is very bad, typhoid and kindred diseases are 
scarcely known. This is thought to be due to the fact that 
the universal drink is tea made from boiled water.) Since 
long boiling makes the water taste flat, it is well to pour 
it, after boiling, from one pitcher to another, several times. 
It thus absorbs air, which improves the flavor. 

Small filters for household use are of little benefit. 
Many of them will remove dirt and other mechanical im¬ 
purities ; but, so far as known, the stone filter is the only 
kind to strain out disease germs. Many persons object to 
stone filters because they work slowly, and also because 
they are expensive. Small filters, made for screwing on 
faucets, have little or no virtue, except for straining out 
large particles of dirt. 

Distilled water may be counted absolutely pure. 

When water used for drinking or cooking purposes 
runs through lead pipes, the faucets should be turned on 
for five minutes every morning, so that the water which 
has stood in the pipes all night may flow away. Otherwise, 
there may be danger of lead poisoning, as water, especially 
rain water, easily dissolves lead. 

There are several stages in the process of boiling water. 
When a utensil holding cold water is set on a hot stove, as 
the water begins to heat, small bubbles may be seen about 
the bottom and sides of the vessel. In a short time these 
rise for some distance in the water, and then break quietly. 
But as the water grows hotter, larger bubbles form, rise 
to the top, and break. When the water is thus stirred 
violently, we call it boiling. Its temperature is then, at 
ordinary elevations above the sea-level, about 212 F. Rapid 
or long continued boiling will not make it any hotter. So, 
in cooking most articles, it is a waste of fuel to keep the 
fire hot enough for brisk boiling. Nearly all foods are 
better both in flavor and appearance if simmered. (Sim¬ 
mering is cooking so gently that the bubbles are small and 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


37 


rise only at intervals. The temperature is about 185 F.) 
For this a low fire may be used, hence there is a saving 
of fuel. 

Strange as it may seem to some, there is really an art 
in boiling water. If quickly brought to a boil, and used 
at once, before parting with the air that gives it flavor, 
it is at its best. When allowed to heat slowly, or to remaki 
on the stove between meals, or if boiled too long, it has a 
“stale” flavor. This is quickly noticed by persons accus¬ 
tomed to taking hot water as a beverage. (Because of 
the nicety needed in the proper boiling of water a certain 
New York City hotel, noted for its good cookery, charges 
as much for a cup of hot water as for tea or coffee.) 

Water, like many other substances, may be a liquid 
or a solid, according to its temperature. It begins to freeze 
at about 32 degrees F. In passing to the solid state, in¬ 
stead of contracting, as most substances do, water expands. 
Its specific gravity then becoming less, ice floats on water. 

(During winter weather neither cream nor milk should be 
set away in a glass jar, china pitcher or similar article, 
which might be broken by sudden expansion, were the liquid 
to freeze.) 

From very remote ages, ice has been used to cool 
food and drink. In many tropical countries, it is custom¬ 
ary to convey ice from the high altitudes to the warmer 
regions below. Both the ancient Greeks and Romans pre¬ 
pared deep underground pits in which they stored for future 
use, ice and snow obtained from the mountains. The con¬ 
venience of having a supply at hand was so apparent that 
by the close of the seventeenth century dealers in ice and 
snow were commonly found in France. 

Where nature provided neither ice nor snow, primitive 
peoples invented means of cooling in a small way. For 
example, water was stored in porous jars. Thus, in a warm 
atmosphere, it cooled by rapid evaporation. Another method 
was to surround the vessels with a mixture of coarse salt 
and water. As the salt dissolved it drew heat away from 
the liquid within the jars. The same principle applies in the 

ice cream making of today. 

The modern ice industry of the United States began 
in the early part of the nineteenth century. Sailing vessels 


38 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


then carried to warm southern ports ice from the rivers and 
lakes of the north. At about the close of the Civil War 
the first large ice factory in this country was built at New 
Orleans. Artificial, or manufactured ice is now used almost 
exclusivelv in the Southern States, but in the North natural 
ice still has much vogue. 

From the sanitary viewpoint, the fitness of ice for use 
in food and drink depends upon the quality of the water 
supply, and the effect which freezing has upon disease 
germs. Although freezing tends to purify the water, not 
all bacteria are destroyed. In addition, there is the fact 
that ice may collect impurities in the gathering, storing 
or delivery. Of natural ice in general, that obtained from 
small ponds or streams near dwellings, is less likely to be 
pure than that gathered from large bodies of deep still water 
at considerable distance away from towns or cities. 

In making artificial ice those factories where careful 
methods prevail, use water which has been filtered or dis¬ 
tilled, or both. Nevertheless, careless workmen may render 
the ice harmful. 

Ice to be used in food should always be rinsed to 
remove surface impurities. It is wise to cool drinking 
water merely by placing it in a refrigerator, or by packing 
ice about it, rather than by putting ice directly into the 
water. 

Readings: The Fairy Land of Science (Buckley), pp. 
73-98; Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture (Mason), pp. 
2^-26; “Water as Food and Drink," Chautauquan, Vol. 
XXIII., p. 324. 

GREEN VEGETABLES. 

Chemical Composition. 

Typical Example :—Cabbage. 

Water 89.6, carbohydrates 5.8, proteid 1.8, mineral mat¬ 
ter 1.3, cellulose 1.1, fat 0.5. 

The name green vegetables is applied to those com¬ 
monly used in their fresh or green state. They are also 
called watery vegetables, because they consist mainly if 
water. These foods have little or no starch. They contain 
considerable cellulose. (This is a fine frame work, extend¬ 
ing through fruits and vegetables, and helping to keep them 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


39 


in shape. It may readily be seen as the tough fibres in a 
leaf of cabbage. In its oldest form, cellulose becomes the 
true woody fibre of plants. Very little, if any cellulose can 
be digested by human beings. Herbivorous animals appear 
able to digest it.) 

Green vegetables supply only a trifle of nourishment. 
They are of much value, however, in our diet because they 
furnish water in a pure form; also, on account of their 
vegetable acids and mineral matter which help to keep the 
blood in good condition, thus warding off scurvy and cer¬ 
tain other diseases. They give a pleasing variety to the 
diet, hence, stimulate the appetite and digestion. Besides, 
their bulk, due to the large amount of cellulose, has its 
advantages. 

The digestibility of watery vegetables appears to depend 
mostly upon the amount of cellulose they contain. When 
this is tender or in small proportion, the vegetable is easily 
digested. If the cellulose be tough, or in large amount, 
the vegetable proves difficult to digest. 

The various parts of plants used as vegetables include 
roots (turnip, sweet potato, beet, carrot, parsnip, salsify), 
tubers (Irish potato, Jerusalem artichoke), bulbs (onion, 
garlic), stems (celery, asparagus), leaf buds (Brussels 
sprouts), leaves (lettuce, dandelion, spinach, cabbage, 
endive), flower buds (cauliflower, capers), flowers (arti¬ 
choke), fruits, green (cucumber, okra), fruits, ripe (tomato, 
eggplant), seeds, unripe (corn, peas), seeds, mature (dried 
beans and peas). 

As a rule, green vegetables should be cooked soon 
after gathering, since they are then at their best in flavor, 
color, and texture. Because they contain a large amount of 
water which readily evaporates, they soon wilt or become 
dry in market. Should this happen, they may be some¬ 
what improved by soaking in cold water for about an hour. 

When buying vegetables, it is best to choose such as 
are in season in one’s home district. These have a better 
flavor and appearance and are less costly than those which 
have been kept in cold storage, forced in hot beds, or ship¬ 
ped from a distance. 


40 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


hi vegetables sold by weight there is usually less waste 
if medium sized ones are selected. When buying by bulk, 
greater value for the money is furnished by those of small 
size, because they pack together more closely in the meas¬ 
ure than do large ones. In case the buying is done by 
number, it often becomes necessary to decide between quality 
and quantity. For example, a large cucumber may sell for 
the same price as one of medium size. The latter will gen¬ 
erally be the better in quality, though lacking in quantity. 
The same rule applies to squashes, peas, string beans, corn, 
etc. 

All vegetables, before being used, need careful and 
thorough washing in cold water. Certain ones, cauliflower 
especially, in which insects are likely to lodge, may be 
soaked, top down, in salted water for a half hour. Lettuce 
leaves, after their washing, should be lightly dried on a towel. 
If then loosely wrapped in a dampened piece of cheese¬ 
cloth or a thin towel, and set in the refrigerator or other 
cool place, the leaves soon become crisp. Celery may be 
treated in the same way, and is much better than when the 
stalks are let stand in water. (This means of chilling the 
vegetables by evaporation is like the old-time way of keep¬ 
ing butter cool in porous crocks; and also similar to the 
East Indian method of cooling water.) 

Any vegetable intended for serving raw (as celery, 
lettuce, radishes) must be the best of its kind—tender and 
young. Only the hearts of celery are really nice for using 
raw. The coarse outer parts should be set aside for soup, 
or for stewing. Instead of serving the large inferior leaves 
of lettuce as a salad, save these for Dutched lettuce, or 
they are fairly useful when shredded for a garnish, or they 
may be torn into small pieces and mixed with other salad 
material. 

Such vegetables as are defective in appearance, flavor 
or state of ripeness may sometimes, by careful cooking and 
dressing, become quite palatable. 

Green vegetables are classed among our cheaper foods; 
yet, even when care is taken in preparing them, there is 
much waste. By the time they are ready to serve, some 
have lost as much as half of their original weight. Pota¬ 
toes and carrots lose about 20 per cent, lima beans and 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. qt 

peas about 50 per cent, and sweet corn somewhat more. In 
making- soup from peas or corn, one may obtain consider¬ 
able flavoring material and mineral matter by boiling the 
pods in the one case and the cobs in the other in the water 
intended for the soup stock. 

The general rule for cooking green vegetables is to 
plunge them into boiling, salted water, and to let them cook 
until barely tender. Over cooking ruins both color and 
flavor. 

In most cases it is best to use a moderate amount of 
water, scarcely enough to cover the vegetables so that by 
the time the cooking is finished, the water has nearly 
evaporated. By this means, less of the flavoring matter of 
the vegetables is lost. Any water remaining may, with but 
few exceptions, be made into a sauce to serve with the vege¬ 
table, or else used in soup. 

Salt is added to most vegetables when they are put 
on to cook. Thus they lose less of their valuable mineral 
matter than if cooked in unsalted water. 

In case vegetables naturally contain some sugar, a 
small amount of cane sugar may be added to the water in 
which they are cooked. This merely replaces the sweet¬ 
ness drawn out of the vegetable during the cooking. By 
such means French cooks have long been accustomed to 
improve the flavor of peas, corn, carrots, beets, etc. 

Some persons add baking soda when cooking green 
vegetables, but this is a mistake as it spoils both color and 
flavor. 

Generally, a cover should be kept on the saucepan in 
which a vegetable is cooking, as the heat is thus well 
retained. Cabbage, cauliflower, onions and turnips are 
cooked with the lid off because their decided odor, due to 
a volatile oil, then quickly escapes. Peas, spinach, and 
other vegetables having a green color, keep their color best 
if cooked uncovered. 

The name “greens” is commonly applied to the leaves 
of certain plants used as food. Among the best-known of 
these stand spinach, mustard, cress, dandelion and dock. 
There are quite a number of others, both cultivated and 


42 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


wild. Most of them rank among our cheapest articles of 
food, as they may often be secured by the roadside, with 
no outlay except that of time. 

The custom of serving these with fat meats is sensible. 
As most greens contain considerable cellulose, they should 
always be cooked until quite tender, and then be chopped 
very fine, or pressed through a sieve. It is well to dress 
them with vinegar, as this softens the cellulose. 

Certain of the watery vegetables may be stored for 
future use. Turnips, carrots and parsnips keep fairly well 
if merely placed in shallow bins, free from dampness. When 
tomatoes grow in a temperate climate, the entire plant may 
be taken up before the frost touches it, and stored in a dark 
cool place. Any well developed green tomatoes will grad¬ 
ually ripen. Tomatoes are very satisfactory for canning, 
as they retain their color and flavor better than most vege¬ 
tables kept in this manner. Corn, peas and beans have 
proved difficult to can successfully at home. It is believed 
that the proteid matter they contain forms the source of 
the trouble. Very young string beans, however, in which 
the seed has scarcely formed, may be canned with success. 
For home use, the old and well-known methods of salting 
or drying are the easiest and safest for corn, peas and beans. 

Readings : Food Products of the World (Greene), chap. 
XXIII; Foods (Smith), pp. 204-213; Home Vegetable 
Garden, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 255 ; Preparation of Vege¬ 
tables for the Table, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 256. 

FRUIT. 

Chemical Composition. 

Typical Example:—Apples. 

Water 83.50, sugar 7., pectin 6.80, cellulose 1.50, acid 
.80, proteid .36, mineral matter .05. 

Fruit is commonly defined as that part of a plant which 
contains the seed. Thus, nuts, grains and quite a number 
of vegetables are really fruits. But in general, by the word 
fruit we mean sweet articles of this class, or those dressed 
with sugar and used as a dessert. 

The nutritious principle in fruits is sugar, although in 
most fruits this does not occur in large amount. Among 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


43 


those richest in sugar are figs, dates and raisins. These, 
because of their heating property, prove best adapted to 
the winter’s diet. 

The beneficial effects of fruit upon the human system 
are similar to those of the watery vegetables, but fruits hi 
general yield less mineral matter than do vegetables, and 
more acid. On account of the various acids and the large 
percentage of water in fruits, they are cooling and refresh¬ 
ing to the system. Hence, fruits and fruit drinks prove 
very acceptable during summer; and in most cases of dis¬ 
ease where there is a feverish state. 

It appears that the most wholesome fruits are those 
in which some one acid exists in large amount. Apples, 
containing malic acid, stand first in the list. Grapes, with 
tartaric acid, and oranges, with citric acid, rank about equal 
in their good effects on the system. 

Almost all fruits with soft pulp, as apricots, peaches, 
pears, plums, etc., are thought to be fairly wholesome. 

Those having many seeds, as blackberries, raspberries 
and huckleberries, are sometimes harmful. They prove 
less objectionable if eaten with bread or other bulky, strachy 
food. It is wise not to indulge in them freely in any case. 

The compact fruits, raisins, bananas, etc., should be 
eaten only in small amounts, and with some kind of bulky 
food. 

Green fruit and ripe fruit differ from each other hi 
many respects. Besides the change in color which gen¬ 
erally takes place during ripening, the fruit becomes less 
acid, most of the starch is turned into sugar, and the jelly¬ 
ing principle, called pectin, is formed. 

Fruits begin to ferment, or “spoil,” soon after the per¬ 
fectly ripe stage. They then become poor in flavor, and 
of a very soft texture. So, fruits for canning or preserv¬ 
ing should be slightly under-ripe. This is necessary, also, 
in jelly making, as the pectin loses its stiffening power 
when the fruit becomes over-ripe. 

For using raw, perfectly ripe fruit is the best from 
the viewpoints of both flavor and wholesomeness. Ill 
effects often follow the eating of green fruit, or of fruit 
so ripe that decay is beginning. In case either green or 
over-ripe fruit must be used, it should be served in some 


44 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

cooked form, as thorough heating seems to prevent harm¬ 
ful effects. Some fruits (as grapes, gooseberries, currants 
and plums) in their green state are much prized for pies, 
jellies and certain other dishes. 

As a rule, fruit is cheapest and also finest in flavor, 
during its natural season. Strawberries in mid-winter and 
peaches in early spring are scarcely desirable except as 
curiosities. Most fruit is at its best in flavor when allowed 
to ripen on the plant—the main exception being certain 
kinds of pears. 

In case one can not use berries or other soft pulpy 
fruit at once, it keeps best if spread out in single layers. 
This rule may well be applied also to the firmer fruits, as 
apples and pears. Not only is decay less likelv to spread, 
but any of the fruit that shows signs of spoiling may be 
readily seen, and used before it becomes worthless. 

Strawberries, and similar fruits may be washed by 
putting them into a colander, which is then dipped several 
limes into a deep pan of water. By this method, the fruit 
does not become crushed so easily as when put directly into 
the water. The skins of bananas, oranges and other fruits, 
that have received much handling or have been shipped 
long distances, should be well wiped with a damp cloth. In 
case a polish is desired on apples, they may be rubbed briskly 
with a dry cloth. Grapes should always have careful rinsing. 
Especial care needs to be taken with malagas or others that 
come packed in ground cork or sawdust. 

After their skin is removed, most fruits quickly turn 
dark on exposure to the air. Hence, as a rule, they should 
not be pared until needed. If this work must be done 
beforehand, it is well to drop the fruit as finished into 
cold water containing a little lemon juice. This prevents, 
to some extent, the discoloration. 

When slicing bananas, if they are cut slanting, instead 
of straight across, the slices will be larger and more attract¬ 
ive. (This is the meat dealer’s way of slicing the tip end 
of beef’s tongue.) 

Oranges, if sliced parallel to the core—up and down— 
instead of crosswise, are much more easily managed \t 
table. The crosswise slices, however, look prettier. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


45 


The custom of using sugar and cream with fresh fruits 
is not hygienic. Sugar disguises the delicate flavor )f 
the fruit, and lessens its tonic and cooling effects upon the 
system. Cream acts similarly and may form a tough, indi¬ 
gestible curd when mixed with the fruit acid. 

In the absence of fresh fruit, dried or evaporated fruit 
is a useful substitute. By dried fruit we usually mean tlyt 
which is cured at home either by the heat of the sun or of 
a moderately warm oven. This process, being slow, allows 
the fruit to become dark, and usually dusty. Home-dried 
fruit is thought by many to have a richer flavor than the 
evaporated. 

The term evaporated fruit is generally applied to that 
cured in large amounts for commercial purposes. The plan 
consists in quickly driving out much of the moisture by 
hot air, or by placing the fruit on trays heated by steam. 
Such fruit usually makes a good appearance, being of a 
lighter color than home-dried fruit. The pleasing color 
may result from the quick drying, but is sometimes pro¬ 
duced by bleaching the fruit in the fumes of sulphur. It i c 
believed that this process makes the fruit less wholesome. 
The dry air and hot sun in California cure fruit so rapidly 
that, although dried, it takes the name evaporated. 

Both in its fresh state and in its various forms of 
preservation, fruit is, at the present time, of much com¬ 
mercial importance. The industry has grown very rapidly. 
Before the latter half of the nineteenth century, the only 
fresh fruits obtainable throughout the year were apples, 
oranges and lemons, and the only dried fruits, prunes, figs 
and raisins. At that time, fresh fruit could not be kept 
in good condition for more thandhree or four days, as cold 
storage had not become known, nor was it possible to ship 
fresh fruit successfully for any long distance, because 
refrigerator cars had not been invented. Besides, both 
land and water transportation were slow. 

Now, perishable fruits from Texas may reach the Chi¬ 
cago markets in three or four days, while those from 
Florida points arrive at New York in an equally short time. 
The ease and rapidity of shipping have stimulated the cul¬ 
ture of certain fruits in those regions best suited to their 
growth. Thus, New York State grapes may be bought 


46 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


during many months in almost every part of the Union; 
California sends oranges, lemons, cherries and apricots as 
far as the Eastern sea-board; Georgia and Delaware peaches 
meet with enormous sales in far remote states; Michigan 
has become the central shipping point for Bartlett pears, 
while Missouri apples have long been widely known. Al¬ 
though the area of cultivation for most fruits is extending 
rapidly, that for apples has become so large that North 
America stands as the great apple growing region of the 
world. Not only does this fruit find a ready sale in our 
own country, but large quantities are sold to other nations. 

So important has the fruit trade become that the United 
States government employs experts to visit our great fruit 
districts and suggest the best means of picking, packing 
and shipping raw fruit. By careful treatment, fruit is now 
usually in good condition when it reaches the consumer. 
There thus occurs in two ways a saving above old-time 
methods: the retail cost is lower, and the cultivator suffers 
less loss from fruit spoiled during shipment. Americans 
use, besides the home-grown fruits, enormous quantities 
from the tropics. Each week, from twenty to thirty thou¬ 
sand bunches of bananas reach New York City alone; while 
pineapples (rare and very expensive fruit abroad) are com¬ 
monly seen here even in small towns, and at a reasonable 
price. 

In addition, the national government sends agricultural 
explorers to foreign countries for the purpose of discovering 
fruits and vegetables unknown in our land. Many of 
these when brought here, thrive well. Thus, our menu 
is made more pleasing, varied, wholesome or economical. 
Some of the comparatively new foods are the Japanese 
persimmon, the Chinese leitchee nut, the bur artichoke, the 
avocado and the chayote. 

Aside from its commercial value in the raw state, fruit 
forms the basis of very many manufactured products. 
Apples are made into marmalade, butter, jelly, evaporated, 
cider, brandy; grapes form jelly, vinegar, wine and argols 
(from which cream of tartar is obtained) ; cherries are 
canned, preserved, candied and dried. Most other fruits 
may be used in similar ways. Certain ones, the orange and 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


47 


lemon in particular, afford material for flavoring extracts; 
while orange blossoms and those of some other fruits are 
used in perfumery. Citric acid, from the lime and lemon 
prove of value to calico printers. 

Readings: Triumphs and Wonders of the 19th Century 
(James P. Boyd), pp. 471-490, on “The Century’s Progress 
in Fruit Culture;” Outing, Yol. 53, p. 497-501, on 
Oranges; Food Products of the World (Greene), pp. 217- 
233; The Home Fruit Garden, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 154; 
Use of Fruits as Food, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 293. 

NUTS. 

Chemical Composition. 

Typical Example: Walnut. 

Fat 63.4, proteid 16.6, carbohydrates 16.1, water 2.5, 
ash 1.4. 

The term nut, as commonly used, means a seed >r 
kernel, enclosed in a more or less woody covering or shell. 

Nuts are produced by many groups which differ much 
in manner of growth. For example, the cocoanut grows 
on a tropical palm, the American hazelnut on a bush, and 
the familiar peanut (strictly speaking, not a nut) on a 
vine-like plant. 

It is only natural that primitive peoples, knowing litt 1 e 
about methods of cooking, and subsisting largely upon raw 
foods, should utilize nuts as staple articles of diet. The 
acorn, seldom used in our day, save by the peasants of the 
Mediterranean region, and by certain Indian tribes of the 
Western United States, was much esteemed by the early 
Greeks and French. 

Both among our North American Indians, and several 
foreign peoples, nuts from the cones of pine trees have 
long been in use. One variety, commonly called the pign- 
olia, is becoming, by reason of its delicate, pleasing flavor, 
a popular addition to the cakes and candies put out by our 
present-day confectioners. 

While the list of nuts in general use as food is con¬ 
stantly growing larger, those of the greatest commercial 
importance are still the old-time favorites, cocoanuts, 
almonds, Persian or English walnuts, chestnuts, pecans, 
hazelnuts and peanuts. 


48 ' ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

The cocoanut, in its ripe stage, differs from its green 
form. In the latter the pulp is a soft, gelatinous mass, of 
pleasing flavor, and readily digested. Not only the natives 
of the tropics, but also travelers in those regions, consider 
the meat of the unripe cocoanut a great delicacy. In the 
ripe nut the firm, thick layer of flesh proves very indigest¬ 
ible. (Children should not be allowed to eat it.) 

The cocoanut is shipped both ripe and in a dried state. 
Before drying some of the oil is often removed, and the 
remaining mass forms the basis of the familiar “prepared’’ 
or “desiccated" cocoanut. The oil extracted from the nut 
is much liked in the tropics for cooking purposes. In the 
manufacture of marine” or “salt water” soap, cocoanut 
oil proves useful, as it makes a lather with hard water. 

Probably no other tree has so many uses as the cocoa 
palm. To the natives of Ceylon it provides food, clothing 
and shelter. From the outer husks of the nuts are made 
ropes, mats and garments; while the hard shells, often 
beautifully polished, carved or inlaid, form cups and bowls. 
The trunks of trees, large and small, supply posts and 
water pipes; the well-developed leaves provide thatching; 
and even the cluster of young leaves (called palm cabbage) 
at the top of the tree is much prized for food, trees some¬ 
times being cut down for the sake of it. 

Almonds are the seeds of a fruit related to, and closely 
resembling, the peach. The pulp of the almond, however, 
is not fit for food. In the Hebrew, the word almond 
means “wakeful”—a reference to its very early blossoming. 

Almonds occur in many varieties, certain ones having 
a thick, somewhat hard shell, while others, called “paper- 
shell” have an envelope so thin that it may easily be 
crushed under one’s fingers. Again, some kinds contain 
a short, thick kernel, while that of the highly-prized Jordan 
almond is long and slender. Almonds are known, also, as 
sweet and bitter, the former being the kind in general use 
for food. As bitter almonds have a very high flavor, con¬ 
fectioners sometimes add a small amount to preparations 
of the milder sweet almonds. But the use of bitter almonds 
must be with great care, as they contain a poisonous acid. 
In the household, when flavoring cakes, etc., with almond 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


49 


extract only a few drops should be used. Severe attacks 
of illness have followed the eating of foods highly flavored 
with almond. 

Sweet almonds (which contain very little of the objec¬ 
tionable principle found in bitter almonds) appear to agree 
with most persons better than any other nut. It is wise, 
however, to remove from the kernel its tough brown skin. 
This process, called blanching (whitening) consists in 
placing the shelled nuts, for a few moments, in boiling 
water, and then rubbing off the loosened skins. The 
almonds should then be put into a moderately warm oven 
until thoroughly dried and crisp. Eaten thus, they are 
probably in a more wholesome form than that called “salted 
almonds." In the process of preparing the salted nuts, 
they are usually browned by contact with hot fat, which 
may prove irritating to the digestive organs. 

From very early times chestnuts have been favorably 
known as food. They were introduced into Europe from 
Asia Minor. 

Chestnuts native to the United States, although supe¬ 
rior in flavor, are inferior in size, to those of Europe and 
Japan. For the purpose of raising large nuts, which com¬ 
mand a high price, chestnut growers in this country often 
graft native stock with Italian or Japanese varieties, the 
latter usually proving the more hardy. 

In comparison with most other nuts, chestnuts contain 
a much larger amount of starch, but less fat and proteid. 
They may be said to form nearly a perfect food. In Italy, 
during a considerable part of the year, the peasantry live, 
and appear to thrive, on a diet of little else than chestnuts. 
Sometimes a trifle of cheese or fish is added to supply a 
slight lack of proteid and fat. 

Chestnuts should not be used as food unless thoroughly 
cooked, in order to make their starch digestible. When 
roasted, their flavor is probably at its best; but, when 
boiled, they may form a part of a greater variety of dishes. 

The peanut, like the chestnut, contains much starch, 
and should not be eaten unless cooked. It is usually 
parched or roasted. Boiling renders it unpalatable. For 


50 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


this reason, the experiment, made in the German army, of 
using peanut soup—a cheap, and nutritious ration—was 
unsatisfactory. 

Peanut oil, of a somewhat nutty flavor, and bland 
character, proves not greatly inferior to olive oil. For the 
production of oil, manufacturers generally prefer the Afri¬ 
can peanut, this variety being very rich in fatty material. 
By reason of its low cost, peanut oil is often used as an 
adulterant or substitute for olive oil. 

There are many manufactured preparations from nuts. 
Among these, almond paste, a mixture of ground almonds 
and sugar, has ready sale among confectioners for the 
making of macaroons, etc. Peanut butter, which is com¬ 
paratively low-priced, and useful for sandwiches and many 
other dishes, has proved of especial value in the diet of 
children who are anaemic or who dislike milk. Preserved 
chestnuts (“marrons glaces”) are a preparation of chest¬ 
nuts preserved in sugar syrup flavored with vanilla. They 
form a dainty, pleasing, but expensive addition to the 
menu. A somewhat similar article made from walnuts and 
maple syrup has become popular as a sauce for ice cream. 

It is customary to use nuts merely as adjuncts to other 
foods. But considering their high food value—the almond 
for example, containing 21 per cent of proteid, 54 per cent 
of fat, and 13 per cent of sugar—they may with reason 
take the place in the diet of eggs, meat or other proteid. 

On account of their extreme concentration nuts should 
be combined or served with foods having considerable 
bulk, for instance such vegetables and fruits as potatoes, 
tomatoes, asparagus, celery, apples, peaches, grapes, pears, 
figs or dates. 

Also, because of their compact form, nuts should be 
eaten very slowly, in order that the particles may become 
finely divided. Thus, they prove less of a tax upon the 
digestive organs. 

Comparing the cost of nuts and meat as sources of 
proteid and fat, it is found that ten cents spent for pea¬ 
nuts will buy four times as much proteid and six times as 
much fat as will the same sum if invested in porterhouse 
steak. Other nuts, however, whose cost is higher, are little, 
if any, less expensive than meat. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


51 


With regard to the relative cost of whole and of shelled 
nuts, one may generally obtain from the shelled article a 
greater amount of edible material for the money expended. 
The reason for this is probably the less weight and bulk 
of shelled nuts, and the consequent lower freight rates and 
other transportation expenses. 

Reading: Nuts as food. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 332. 

BEVERAGES. 

Our word beverage comes from bever, which formerly 
meant any light food or drink taken between meals. As 
.the liquid refreshment was usually the main part, the term 
beverage finally came to mean anything to drink. 

It seems odd that every nation in the world has one or 
more beverages in general use. In most countries, some 
common and cheap product has been made to yield the 
desired liquid or flavoring matter. For example: the Mex¬ 
icans obtain their national drink, pulque, from a species of 
“century plant;’’ the people of Central Africa make a wine 
from the sap of the palm tree; the Arabians convert milk 
into kumiss; while the Chinese make sake from rice. It is 
a well-known fact that most of the cereals, especally barley, 
corn and rye, are used in similar ways, and also nearly all 
fruits, grapes and apples in particular. While, unfortun¬ 
ately, many of the beverages from these sources are intox¬ 
icating, we can find several free from this objectionable 
feature. Of these, tea, coffee and cocoa are the ones in 
most common use on American tables. 

Cocoa or chocolate is in itself a true food, but when 
used as a beverage it can give no very large amount of 
nourishment, as it is in such a dilute form. Tea and coffee 
are not foods but stimulants, thus they cause a person to 
feel better for the time being. Also, they prevent wa'ste 
of tissue. For these reasons they are sometimes of consid¬ 
erable value. Perhaps their main danger lies in the fact 
that people occasionallv depend upon them to take the 
place of true foods. The custom—followed by some stu¬ 
dents—of studying until late at night, and keeping awake 
by' drinking strong coffee, is sure to prove harmful. 

While persons in good health do not positively need 
stimulants of any kind, these beverages, if properly made, 
and used in moderation, seldom produce ill effects. It 



52 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


seems best not to use any one of them exclusively. Tea 
and coffee are believed to counteract each other in their 
effects on the human body. So, it is well to serve them 
only at alternate meals. Both tea and coffee, because of 
their action on the nervous system, are unsuitable for the 
young. Cocoa or chocolate, being less stimulating, and 
having the power to build up tissue, is seldom objection¬ 
able. 

Reading: Home Life in All Lands (Morris), pp. 41-49. 

TEA. 

Chemical Composition. 

Active ingredients: Theine 2 to 4 per cent, tannic acid 
10 to 12 per cent, volatile oil 1-2 to 1 per cent. 

Tea—a plant grown for its leaves—is thought to have 
been native to China. In that country its cultivation has 
extended over thousands of years. It is now grown also 
in Japan, Korea, Ceylon and India. Experiments have 
been made in raising it in South Carolina. 

In the jungles, the tree grows to a height of 30 ft. 
or more, with leaves frequently nine inches long, and four 
inches wide. L T nder cultivation, for protection against 
winds, and for convenience in picking the leaves, the plant 
is generally kept down to a height of two or three feet. 

Each year there are three pickings. The leaves gath¬ 
ered at the first picking, in April, bring the best prices, 
as the young leaf-buds make a beverage of finer flavor 
than do the large, well-grown leaves of later crops. (From 
a really fine grade of tea it is impossible to brew a dark 
beverage. Many persons do not understand this, thinking 
that a light colored tea is poor or weak.) The last picking 
is very inferior, and the leaves are sold almost entirely to 
the poor people. 

It is a rather curious fact that the fresh leaves have 
neither odor nor flavor. After picking, they are cured by 
various processes, and made into either green or black tea. 
These two kinds of leaves need not grow on different 
plants. Their color depends upon the method of drying. 
Black tea is dried slowly—often by the heat of the sun— 
and allowed to ferment. Thus it grows dark (just as a 
heap of autumn leaves do, when exposed to moisture and 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 53 

\ __ 

heat). For green tea, the leaves are dried quickly, by 

artificial heat, and so keep much of their natural color. 

The rolling of tea leaves is done by hand, or even by 
the naked feet or by machinery. 

After curing, tea leaves quickly lose flavor unless kept 
dry. For this reason, in olden times, the finer grades of 
tea were never sent to other countries by a water voyage. 
Instead, the fine teas were taken overland, on the backs 
of camels, by the “Caravan route.” Even now, with fast 
sailing vessels built especially for the tea trade, the captains 
each wish to be first in reaching port with his cargo of tea. 
Packers of tea are always careful to line tea chests with 
tin foil as a means of keeping out moisture. Taking a 
lesson from such broad experience, the housekeeper should 
never let tea remain in a paper sack, but should store it in 
a tin canister, glass jar or other air-tight vessel. 

The flavor and stimulating effects of tea are due main¬ 
ly to theine, tannin, and a volatile oil. Tannin is that 
which gives the bitter flavor. One notices this especially 
when tea has been steeped too’ long, or actually boiled. 
Tannin obtained from oak bark, etc., is used in tanning 
leather. The tannin in tea has a like effect in stiffening 
animal tissues, and may even act on the lining of the stom¬ 
ach. Consequently, tea should be made in such a way that 
but little tannin is drawn out of the leaves. 

Tea owes its stimulating effect, for the most part, to 
theine. Water below boiling point does not dissolve enough 
theine to make a pleasant beverage. Nor will a shorter 
time than three minutes answer for the theine. But if tea 
steeps longer than seven minutes, it grows bitter from too 
much tannin. For the best results then, the medium time 
of five minutes is chosen. 

Green tea, on account of the quick curing given the 
leaves, is more stimulating and has a more decided flavor 
than black tea. Also, green tea contains about twice as 
much tannin as black tea. 

In order that the beverage made from green tea be 
not too strong and bitter, the water poured on the leaves 
should be slightly below boiling point. For black tea, the 
water should be brought to a boil immediately before pour- 
ine it over the leaves. To secure good results, fresh cold 

o 


54 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


water heated quickly, is necessary. The Chinese think 
water from a running stream the best. Such water natur¬ 
ally holds much dissolved air, hence has a pleasing flavor. 
Soft water should always be used in preference to hard. 
Of the two, hard water can dissolve less of the flavoring 
matters of the tea; also, any mineral substance in the water 
may injure the flavor of the beverage. 

Tea should always be made in a china or a well-glazed 
earthenware pot. If made in a tin pot, the tannic acid acts 
on the metal, making a beverage dark in color and dis¬ 
pleasing in flavor. 

It is unhygienic to add cream or milk to tea, as the 
tannin changes the casein of milk into a tough curd. There 
seems to be no harm to the health in using with tea either 
sugar or lemon, sliced, after the Russian fashion. 

Readings: Foods (Smith), pp. 330-359; Home Life 
in Colonial Days (Earle), pp. 164-165. 

COFFEE. 

Chemical Composition :—Roasted. 

Active Principles: Oil 13.59, tannin 4.74, caffeine 0.82. 

Coffee grows in tropical countries, such as Arabia, 
Java, the West Indies and South America. Brazil raises 
enormous amounts, and ships to the United States about 
three-fourths of all the coffee used here. 

It is related that from Arabia came the first coffee 
shrubs grown in Europe. These were planted in conserv¬ 
atories and carefully studied by French and Dutch scient¬ 
ists. The latter quickly saw the economic value of the plaat 
and coffee culture was soon begun in the Dutch East Indian 
possessions. Wonderful crops were produced, and thus was 
laid the foundation for much of Holland’s commercial pros¬ 
perity. 

Coffee is thought to have come to the West Indies by 
way of France. From there, a naval officer, having 3 
plant in his care, set sail, and after a long and stormy 
voyage, in which he shared his scanty supply of drinking 
water with the plant, he finally reached the islands. From 
the tree thus introduced have sprung the huge West Indian 
coffee plantations of the present time. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


r* ** 

DO 

The coffee tree grows about 8 to 18 ft. high, when 
wild. In cultivation it is kept down to an average of 6 
ft., the pruning being for convenience in gathering the 
crop. The part used is the seed of the fruit, which when 
ripe resembles a red cherry. Occasionally, the fruit con¬ 
tains only one seed. Any such are much valued and sell 
at a high price, under the name of peaberry or male berry. 
(However, the term berry for coffee is incorrect. The 
word bean, which is sometimes used, comes from bunn, 
the Arabic name for coffee.) As a rule, each fruit holds 
two seeds, covered with a membrane called parchment. 
The tree bears during eight months of the year, presenting 
a beautiful appearance, as it holds at the same time white 
blossoms and green and red fruit clinging thickly to the 
branches. 

After being picked from the tree, the seeds must have 
their outer covering removed, then they are sorted, accord¬ 
ing to sizes. This is necessary because in a later process, 
that of roasting, if mixed, small beans might burn before 
those of large size were sufficiently heated. Roasting is 
done for the purpose of developing flavor. Before roast¬ 
ing, coffee may be of a dull greenish color, as that from 
of roasting, coffee turns some shade of brown. There are 
Brazil and the West Indies, or a pale yellow, such as that 
from Java and other East Indian countries. In the process 
three degrees, called red, chestnut, and dark roast. The 
red, or pale brown, does not bring out enough flavor to 
suit most tastes. The dark roast produces a strong, some¬ 
what bitter flavor. This kind is preferred abroad, and by 
manv among our foreign population. Most Americans like 
the chestnut, or medium roast. 

During the roasting, the seeds gain in bulk, from ex¬ 
pansion of gas, but they lose in weight because of the 
moisture driven out. To make up to themselves for this 
loss in weight, some coffee roasters turn over the coffee 
a jet of steam. By absorbing this moisture, the coffee takes 
among dealers, the name of “wet roast.” The better grades 
of coffee are not thus treated, and they appear in adver¬ 
tisements as “dry roast.” 


56 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Coffee in the green stage improves with age. Gov¬ 
ernment Java was formerly kept in warehouses for seven 
years, and became noted for its fine flavor. After roasting, 
however, the sooner coffee is used, the better. In countries 
where it grows, most households have the daily supply 
fresh roasted. Since the flavor escapes easily, it shoul 1 
be kept in air-tight cans. 

It is well to buy unground coffee, and to grind it only 
as needed. Coffee in the whole grain is generally the pure 
article. Ready-ground coffee may be much adulterated. 
Chicory, a plant belonging to the same order as the dande¬ 
lion, is one of the main adulterants. The root, roasted and 
ground, is the part used'. The French and certain other 
nations prefer the addition of chicory, as it gives a some¬ 
what bitter flavor to the coffee, and deepens the color. 
Caramel, also, is sometimes added for coloring. 

Coffee itself has a slightly bitter flavor, due to tannin, 
of which coffee contains less than tea. The stimulating 
property of coffee is given by its caffeine (similar to theine 
in tea), while its flavor and aroma are due to a volatile oil. 
There is a greater amount of such oil in coffee than in tea, 
hence the more noticeable odor of coffee. 

As a beverage, coffee may be made either by boiling or 
by filtering. For the latter method, the coffee, ground to 
a fine powder, is put into a French, Vienna or drip coffee 
pot. There are many varieties of these, the main point in 
all being that the coffee does not rest directly in the water. 
Whether the coffee be held in a cheesecloth sack or in 
a perforated cylinder, the boiling water is slowly poured 
over it. This method develops the flavor and aroma, but 
draws out very little of the objectionable tannin. 

In making boiled coffee, the bean must be ground 
only moderately fine, else the beverage will be “muddy.” 
White of egg is generally added because heat coagulates 
the albumen of the egg. As this is mixed through the 
beverage, and gradully stiffens, it gathers up floating bits 
of coffee or impurities, and thus clears the liquid. Boiled 
coffee, as the name implies, is really boiled in water. If the 
boiling be continued for longer than one or two minutes, 
the fine aroma of the coffee passes off into the air and 
cannot then be in the beverage. The old method of boiling 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


57 


coffee from ten minutes to an hour in order to draw out 
the “strength,” did extract the tannin, and made the cof¬ 
fee both black and bitter, but the pleasing frangrance of 
the coffee was lost. For those who prefer boiled coffee, 
perhaps the best way to make it is to put the coffee on 
the fire in cold water and bring quickly to boiling point, 
when it should be used at once. Most persons know the 
fine flavor of coffee made in this way over a wood fire in 
the open air. 

While opinions differ regarding the flavor produced 
by the various ways of making, infused coffee must be 
granted preference from the standpoint of economy. For 
this method the bean needs to be ground fine, so a less 
quantity may be used than when ground coarse as for 
boiled coffee. When ground at the grocery, the coffee is 
seldom as fine as the economical housekeeper wishes. The 
grocer may prefer to grind coarse because less time and 
less strength are needed than in pulverizing the bean. Also, 
his profits are greater on the coarsely ground article, 
because much of this has to be used in order to color and 
flavor the beverage. 

In buying coffee, it is seldom of use to pay any atten¬ 
tion to the special name given. This may have little or no 
meaning. Coffee put up in cans is generally called Mocha 
and Java; although it has perhaps been raised thousands 
of miles from either place. As a rule, the small grains 
go by the name of Mocha, while larger flat grains are 
called Java. 

There are a number of coffee substitutes, the most of 
them being made from roasted grains—rye in particular. 
These cereal beverages can not be thought unwholesome 
unless some foreign stimulant has been added. Their 
natural lack of stimulating effect is the most important 
point claimed in their favor. 

Reading: Coffee from Plantation to Cup (Thurbcr). 

COCOA. 

Chemical Composition. 

Main ingredients: Fat 49.9, proteid 10.9, carl ^hy¬ 
drates 2.4, theobromine 1 to 2. 


58 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

The word cocoa is properly cacao. It seems a pity 
not to use the correct term, as many persons confuse cocoa 
with cocoanut, although the two are entirely different. 

Cocoa (or cacao) is obtained from a tree which grows 
wild in South America and Mexico. The earliest accounts 
of the chocolate plant have come to us through the explorers 
who followed Columbus to our continent. These men took 
a great fancy to the drink in use among the tribes living 
about the Caribbean Sea. Directions and material for 
making the beverage were carried back to Portugal and 
Spain, and in a short time, chocolate became popular 
throughout Europe. The cocoa tree bears seed pods about 
ten inches in length. Each pod contains from twenty *o 
thirty seeds, which in size and shape are much like almonds. 
When the pods ripen they are cut from the tree by the 
use of a long pole, to the end of which a knife is fastened. 
This means is necessary, as the tree grows to a considerable 
height. The pods, after removal are usually gathered into 
heaps, or stored in a hole in the ground, to “sweat.” This 
process softens the pulp around the seeds, and they are 
then shelled out by hand, about as we shell peas. After¬ 
ward, they pass through several processes, the main one 
perhaps being the roasting, which has much to do with 
developing their flavor. Most Americans prefer cocoa or 
chocolate made from beans that have been roasted only 
enough to color them a rich brown. For use among many 
other nations, the seeds are roasted until nearly black. 

After the roasting, there is taken from each seed its 
outer husk or thick skin. These are sold as cocoa shells 
and may be used to make a beverage which is thin, like 
tea, but has the flavor of cocoa. It is often useful for 
delicate children or invalids. The shells can be bought in 
large cities, and are low in price. 

The seeds are next broken into coarse pieces, called 
cocoa nibs. These, also, sometimes prove of value as a 
beverage for invalids. In order to draw out the flavor ")f 
the nibs, they must be boiled much longer than either cocoa 
or chocolate. If thoroughly dried after each cooking, they 
may be used several times before losing flavor. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


59 


For the manufacture of chocolate, the nibs are crushed 
under heavy heated rollers, until they form a thick pas*> 
This, when run into molds, and hardened in a cool place, 
takes the name of chocolate. 

When most of the fat is removed from the chocolate, 
and the remainder dried and ground to a powder, it becomes 
known as cocoa. 

The fat, called cocoa butter, is used in certain kinds 
of candy. It has, also, considerable value as a salve for 
chafed skin. To some extent, it is used in the manufacture 
of soap, and as a source of glycerine. 

During the process of manufacture of cocoa or choc¬ 
olate, there are several common additions. If sugar be put 
in, the product is called sweet chocolate. As a matter of 
economy unsweetened or “bitter” chocolate, should be given 
the preference for general cooking purposes. Bitter choc¬ 
olate and sweet chocolate usually sell for the same price, 
about forty cents the pound. Thus, in the case of the 
sweetened article, one pays at the rate of forty cents per 
pound for whatever sugar it contains. 

Vanilla or cinnamon are sometimes added to chocolate 
or cocoa. These flavorings improve the product for some 
tastes, and can scarcely be looked upon as adulterants. 

Some of the inferior grades of cocoa and chocolate are 
adulterated with starch, ground cocoa shells, or other cheap 
substances to increase the weight. If there is a rather 
coarse sediment found in a cup of chocolate, one may sus¬ 
pect the presence of cocoa shells. When the beverage 
thickens decidedly upon boiling, it is fairly certain that 
starch has been added. 

In making a beverage from cocoa or chocolate, one 
should always observe the rule of boiling it in water. The 
milk or cream desired may be heated and added just before 
serving. The delicate flavor of cocoa and chocolate is 
ruined by the usual method of boiling in milk; also, when 
made in this way, the beverage is less digestible. 

Since chocolate contains much fat, it is heating to the 
system, and is well suited, for use in winter. Cocoa, having 
little fat, is found better as a part of the summer diet. 

Reading: The Chocolate Plant. (Published bv Walter 
Baker and Co.) 


6o 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


PROTEIDS. 

As proteids are the only class of substances fitted for 
building up animal tissue, they are the most important of 
all our foods. They can also, furnish heat and energy. 
Thus, we may rely on them, if necessary, to take the place 
of starch, sugar and fat. But as carbohydrates are cheaper 
foods, it is a point of economy to use them for supplying 
heat, and to depend on the proteid only for the buildmg 
up of muscle and other tissues. 

Proteid foods are obtained from both animal and vege¬ 
table sources. Among the animal proteids are milk, cheese, 
eggs, shellfish, meat, poultry and game. Vegetable proteid 
is found mainly in dried peas and beans, peanuts, choco¬ 
late and bananas. It also occurs in the cereals. 

Animal proteid proves to be more easily digested than 
vegetable proteid. Some give as the reason for this,' that 
animal proteid is more like the tissues of the human body. 
Nearly all of the animal proteid is absorbed, while only 
about two-thirds of the vegetable proteid can be used. 
Thus, one must eat a greater bulk of proteid from vegetable 
than from animal sources in order to gain an equal amount 
of strength. 

VEGETABLE PROTEID. 

Chemical Composition. 

Typical Example :—Beans, dried. 

Carbohydrates 55.8, proteid 23., water 11.7, cellulose 4., 
mineral matter 3.2, fat 2.3. 

In this country, the vegetables in most common use 
for supplying proteid are dried beans and peas. While 
there are many varieties of these, special ones are favored 
in certain localities. Thus, in Oklahoma and other parts 
of the Southwest, the small “chile" bean, and the larger 
kidney bean are much esteemed. The taste for these was 
evidently introduced from Mexico. In the Southeastern 
States, the black-eyed bean and the cow-pea are greatly 
used. New England—long noted for its baked beans— 
favors the navy or pea bean. 

The lentil, scarcely known in the United States, except 
among our foreign population, is used extensively in Can¬ 
ada and European countries. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. . 6l 

In appearance, lentils (the seeds) resemble small, flat¬ 
tened peas. The color of the common varieties is pink, 
brown or green. It is said that the mess of pottage for 
which Esau sold his birthright was made from lentils. 

Dried beans and peas must always be cooked in soft 
(unsalted) water. Salt, or other mineral matter, acts on 
the casein, hardening it so that the vegetable will not cook 
tender. (The Chinese take advantage of this fact in mak¬ 
ing a kind of cheese from the soy bean.) Seasoning should 
be added to dried peas or beans only a short time before 
serving. 

These foods require long, slow cooking, to make the 
starch digestible, and also to soften the cellulose which is 
much hardened in drying. 

As the envelope or skin on peas and beans is very 
tough and indigestible, it should be removed whenever pos¬ 
sible. (What are sold as split peas have had the skin 
taken off by a chemical process.) In making soup from 
any of these vegetables, it is wise to pass them through a 
sieve after cookin, so that the skins need not be eaten. 

Since all foods of this class are somewhat lacking in 
fat, this should be added in the course of cooking. Thus, 
beef suet is used in preparing “chile,” and fat pork with 
Boston baked beans. 

(Fresh green peas, and also string beans, when young 
and tender, are reasonably classed among watery vegetables, 
because very little proteid has developed. Both of these, 
when quite young and fresh, are thought easy of digestion.) 

Peanuts belong to the same botanical family as peas 
and beans and contain about an equal amount of nutriment. 
But they have not been recognized as a staple food. Never¬ 
theless, there is quite a large trade in peanuts. They are 
much used in the manufacture of candy and cakes; also, as 
a “pick-me-up” between meals. While they disagree with 
some, their food value is high, and they form a cheap source 
of proteid. They need thorough roasting in order to cook 
the starch. If eaten with a bit of salt or in the form of 
salted peanuts, they seldom cause distress. . Being a com ¬ 
pact food, they should always be well masticated. 


62 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Bananas are cheap and nutritious, but contain onlv 
four per cent of proteid—not enough to sustain life unless 
very large quantities are consumed. In the tropics, where 
the poorer people have scarcely any other food, each pe r son 
eats five or- six dozen bananas daily. 

Chocolate may be added to a diet lacking in pr teid 
in the form of chocolate drops (best used at the end of a 
meal) or as an ingredient of puddings, cakes, ice cream, etc. 

ANIMAL PROTEID. 

MILK. 

Chemical Composition. 

Water 87., sugar 5., fat 4., proteid 2.2, mineral mat¬ 
ter 0.7. 

Milk is often called a perfect food, but for adults it 
does not contain enough carbohydrates. If used with 
bread or potatoes, it forms a fairly nutritious food for those 
doinly only light work. The main objection to milk as a 
food for persons taking active exercise is its large per 
centage of water. Thus, at least four or five quarts would 
need to be drunk daily in order to furnish enough nutri¬ 
ment. Hence, as generally used, milk is not depended 
upon entirely for proteid supply. Its value as an article of 
diet appears chiefly in the following ways: As an addition 
to foods somewhat lacking in proteid, for example, a milk 
sauce with vegetables; as a means of diluting very con¬ 
centrated proteid, like eggs, in the making of custard; as a 
sole source of proteid in cases of illness when little nourish¬ 
ment is needed, or when heavy proteids would not agree. 

It should always be remembered that milk is a food — 
not merely a drink. Although it is taken into the system 
as a liquid, during the process of digestion, it soon becomes 
a solid. Hence, like any other solid food, it should be 
taken in small portions at a time. (One physician says that 
milk should be “chewed.”) In this way, during the process 
of digestion, only small clots are formed, and the system 
can easily assimilate these. But if milk is drunk at a gulp, 
a large tough clot forms which greatly taxes the digestive 
organs. 

“Germs’’ of various kinds grow readily in milk. For 
example: one kind colors it blue or red; another causes 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 63 

souring; while still others give it an unpleasant flavor. 
Milk has often been found a carrier of typhoid, tubercu¬ 
losis, etc. For this reason, the greatest care should be 
taken in handling milk. When it must be bought from 
dealers, sealed jars, though not above suspicion, are more 
sanitary than the old-time huge metal can, left open to 
the air each time a customer was served. 

Whether one cow, or a herd, be kept, strict attention 
should be given to the cleanliness of stables, animals, hands 
and clothing of the milkers, utensils and water used in 
washing the utensils. Covered milking vessels are superior 
to the open pail. The milk should be passed through a 
fine strainer, and then cooled as soon as possible. A spring 
house is perhaps the ideal place for storing it, especially 
when there are large quantities. If in small amount it 
may be kept in a refrigerator, cool cellar, or cool pantry. 
In no instance should it be put near anything having a 
decided odor, as turnips or cabbage, because milk absorbs 
odors very readily. The places for storing milk should 
always have good ventilation, but be free from dust. To 
keep out dust, there may be a thin cloth or loosely fitting 
cover over the milk. With a tight cover, the flavor of the 
milk is not so good. 

The best utensils for holding milk are glass or porce¬ 
lain, because these are easily cleaned, do not absorb odor 
or flavor, and have no seams to form lodging places for 
bacteria. Bright tin, well coated—preferably block tin— 
may form the second choice. Wooden utensils should 
always be avoided. 

Utensils require careful washing in luke-warm water 
to which plenty of soda has been added. Clear, hot water 
should be used for rinsing. It is best to dry the utensils in 
the direct sunlight, this being a great purifier. If tin uten¬ 
sils must be used, much care should be taken in cleansing 
the seams. For this purpose, a skewer, with a thin cloth 
• wrapped about the end, answers fairly well. 

After milk has been kept for awhile, certain changes 
occur in it. These may be a souring and thickening due 
to the formation of lactic acid; or, there may be putre- 


6 4 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


factive changes, known by unpleasant odor and flavor. 
Both of these changes occur much less quickly in clean 
than in unclean milk. 

As a means of keeping milk sweet, scalding or heating 
to about 140° to 150° F. is useful. This method is also 
called pasteurization, because the noted chemist Pasteur 
recommended it. The milk should be put into a double 
boiler and heated for about a half-hour, or until bubbles 
appear around the edge. Then it is to be taken off the fire 
and cooled quickly. At scalding point, most “germs” that 
may be present are destroyed. Yet the milk is not made 
less digestible nor is its flavor changed. Some persons 
make the mistake of boiling the milk. If heated to so high 
a degree, it becomes much less digestible by the tough¬ 
ening of the casein. Also, the fat separates out, appearing 
as greasy globules on top, and the flavor of the milk is 
changed. For these reasons physicians seldom recommend 
that milk be boiled, unless there is an epidemic of some 
serious disease that may be carried by the milk. However, 
the lower heat of scalding is always wise when milk needs 
to form almost the sole food of invalids or children. Such 
heating proves of especial value during hot weather. Many 
physicians say that milk should be scalded even for those 
in good health. The scum which appears on well-heated 
milk should not be thrown away, as it consists of fat, casein 
and albumen. If its appearance is displeasing, a brief beat¬ 
ing will break up the particles. 

When milk seems to be on the point of souring, the 

addition of a trifle of baking soda is not thought to injure 

the health. But one should never risk the use of salicylic 
acid, formaldehyde or other such preservatives. 

It is now believed by many that buttermilk or clabber 
ranks above sweet milk in wholesomeness for adults. After 
souring or churning, the milk does not form in large clots 
when taken into the system. For this reason, the digestive 
juices can readily act on it. Also, the acid in the milk 

appears to aid digestion. In fevers, buttermilk is often of 

value, on account of the cooling effect of the acid. Like¬ 
wise, it may well be used, especially during summer, by 
those in good health. The lactic acid bacteria hinder the 
growth of other bacteria which are injurious to the human 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 65 

system. It is now claimed by some that the long life of 
the peasants in certain European districts is due to their 
daily use of buttermilk or clabber. Possibly there may 
be much truth in the old saying of the East Indian shep¬ 
herds that a man may live without bread, but without 
buttermilk he dies.” 

As the fat of milk—cream—is liked by nearly every 
one, and has many uses in cookery, it always brings a • 
high price in comparison with the whole milk. After the 
removal of the cream, the skimmed milk is commonly 
counted so poor that it is used only as food for chickens 
or domestic animals. Yet, considering its market price— 
about half that of whole milk—skimmed milk is a cheap 
form of nutriment. In many dishes, skimmed milk may 
wisely be substituted for water, thus enabling one to use 
less of the more expensive proteids. . When it is necessary 
to economize, skimmed milk answers quite well for milk 
toast, milk soups, milk sauces, or for the liquid in corn¬ 
starch, tapioca or bread puddings, etc. 

Condensed milk is a form of milk from which bv 
special treatment, much of the water has been evaporated. 
This work can not be done in the household, but it forms 
a very large and important commercial industry. One 
condensed milk factory, which still flourishes near New 
York City was established at the time of the Civil War, 
when this kind of milk had large sales. 

Condensed milk, in the unopened can, will keep sweet 
in almost any climate, and for an indefinite period. The 
reason for this is the fact that anv bacteria originally pres¬ 
ent in the milk were destroyed by the heat used in con¬ 
densing. Even after a can has been opened, such milk 
spoils less quickly than fresh milk. It should be turned at 
once from the can, after opening—even if onlv a sma'l 
portion is to be used immediately. There is danger of 
poisoning from milk and from any other class of canned 
goods left standing in the open tin. 

Although condensed milk has several features in its 
favor for general cooking purposes it proves more costlv 
than fresh milk. Compared with cream, the condensed 
milk is the less expensive. It is a wise economy to buy 
unsweetened brands. Not only are they suited to a larger 


66 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


range of foods, but one actually obtains more milk for the 
same money than from the sweetened forms. 

Readings: Milk as Food, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 74; 
Care of Milk on the Farm, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 63; Facts 
About Milk, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 42; Souring of Milk 
and Other Changes in Milk Products, Farmers’ Bulletin 
No. 29; Milk and Its Products (Wing), pp. 66-94, on Milk, 
and chap. XIII., on Skim-milk, Buttermilk, etc.; Atlantic, 
Aug. 1907, on “The City and Its Milk Supply;” Food 
Products of the World (Greene), chap. XIII., on “Milk 
and Milk Foods.” 

CHEESE. 

Chemical Composition. 

Proteid 32.9, fat 31., water 26.9, mineral matter 4.5. 

The proteid of milk, called casein, forms the basis of 
cheese. When milk turns sour, and curdles, the white, 
solid substance is almost entirely casein. 

There are other ways of obtaining the casein in a mass. 
For example, the milk may be clotted by rennin. (The 
extract of rennin is usually prepared from the stomach 'of 
young calves.) 

The general plan followed in making most kinds of 
cheese is to let the casein separate from the liquid portion, 
called whey, which is drained off. The firm mass is then 
set away to ripen. This ripening or curing process may 
extend from a few weeks to many months. By lengthy 
curing a decided flavor develops. “Mild” cheese is th j t 
cured for only a short time. Certain cheeses, such as 
schmier-kase are used in a quite fresh state. 

Cheese, in some form, has been made from ancient 
times. It was known long before butter. Among the early 
Egyptians goat’s milk and sheep’s milk were used in 
cheese-making. The Romans were partial to cheese, even 
bringing it in from foreign countries. At the present day, 
cheese is used as an article of diet to a greater extent than 
ever before. (One wit says that this age will go down to 
history as the “Cheese Age.”) In our country, the two 
greatest cheese-making states are New York and Wiscon¬ 
sin. The output of the two together is three-fourths of 
the total amount made in the United States. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


67 


There are now manufactured more than one hundred 
and fifty different kinds of cheese, but they may all be 
roughly grouped under four classes: (1) Those made from 
whole milk to which cream has been added. Such cheeses 
usually have a very decided flavor. They are expensive, 
and are made mostly in Europe; (2) Whole milk cheese, 
sometimes called “full cream/’ which means that none of 
the cream has been removed from the milk. This is one 
of the best kinds of cheese for general cooking purposes. 
In America it is the variety usually meant by the term 
“cheese;” (3) Skimmed milk cheese. A familiar example 
is schmier-kase or cottage cheese; (4) Filled cheese. This 
consists of skimmed milk to which lard, or other cheap 
fat has been added. Such fat is the “filling.” It forms a 
poor substitute for the natural fat of the milk. This kind 
of cheese is tough, has a poor flavor and becomes very 
greasy in warm weather. If left in the wrapping paper 
for awhile, the fat comes from the cheese, and soaks into 
the paper. Filled cheese is very unsatisfactory for cook¬ 
ing, because the heat makes it tough and ropy. The cost 
of making such cheese is said to be only about four or 
five cents the pound, yet dealers often sell it at twenty- 
five cents the pound, as full-cream cheese. This fraud 
has hurt the sale of cheese exported from the United States 
to Europe. Some of our dairy states try to enforce a law 
against it. Canada will not allow the manufacture of either 
skimmed milk or filled cheese. 

The amount of nutriment in chees'e is very great. Com¬ 
pared with an equal weight of beef, cheese contains about 
three times as much proteid and twice as much fat. On 
account of its denseness, cheese may easily disagree with 
persons who eat it in large quantities, or unmixed with 
some bulky food. Hominy, bread, macaroni and potatoes 
are thought to be the best forms of starch to use with 
cheese. At any meal where cheese is served as the main 
proteid, there should be offered also vegetables or fruics 
having a moderate amount of cellulose. Among the most 
suitable of these are lettuce, tomatoes, spinach, apples and 
prunes. 

Cheese is better adapted for use by persons doing 
muscular work than for those taking little ?xercise. 


68 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Although cheese is commonly eaten raw, it may he 
used in many cooked dishes. The heat of cooking, by 
softening the cheese, makes it more digestible; but it must 
be eaten at once. If allowed to cool after cooking, it 
grows very tough and thus greatly taxes the digestive 
organs. 

Readings: Food Products of the World (Greene), 
chap. XV.; Milk and Its Products (Wing), chap. XII. 

EGGS. 

Chemical Composition. 

Edible part: Water 73.7, proteid 14.8, fat 10.5, mineral 
matter 1. 

Naturalists say that there is no bird known whose 
egg is actually unwholesome as food. Fishes’ eggs, called 
‘Toe" are regarded by many as a delicacy, while turtles’ 
eggs meet with approval. 

However, hen’s eggs are those in common use for 
cooking purposes. A hen’s egg consists of shell, mem¬ 
brane, white and yolk. The yolk appears to be held i 1 
position bv the little cords of albumen, one extending to 
each end of the egg. On the yolk there may be seen a 
light colored speck, which is the germ. The white is mainlv 
water containing albumen dissolved in it. The yolk con-, 
tains many substances, its color being given by a yellow¬ 
ish oil. 

Although certain people prefer stale eggs—the Chinese 
liking ducks’ eggs that have been buried in the ground for 
about a year, until they turn black and hard—Americans 
wish eggs as fresh as possible. There are several ways 
of deciding whether an egg is fresh, without breaking the 
shell. Held in the hand, before a bright light, (called 
“candling” because the light formerly used was a candle) 
a fresh egg appears clear. The shell of a fresh egg is 
rough and dull-looking, while the shell of a stale egg is 
smooth and shiny. If placed in a pan of water, fresh eggs 
remain at the bottom. An egg that rests on its side in the 
water is fresher than one that tilts on end. When eggs 
float, they are stale, and, as a rule, unfit for use. The 
cause of tfie floating is that as the egg grows old, its fluid 
contents evaporate through the shell, and the air enters to 
take their place. Thus the egg grows light in weight. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


69 


Also, the action of the air on the contents of the egg 
causes spoiling. Hence, to exclude the air, and to pre¬ 
serve for future use, we pack them in bran, sawdust, cot¬ 
tonseed and other like cheap substances. Or, they may be 
coated with grease, varnish, etc. As eggs spoil less quickly 
at low temperature, dealers keep large quantities in cold 
storage, somewhat above freezing point. But eggs remain 
good for only a short time after being taken out of such 
storage places. 

Packed eggs, if well kept, may be quite wholesome, 
and are useful in many ways when fresh eggs would be 
too high-priced. 

The flavor of even perfectly fresh eggs is not always 
pleasing. Onions and some other highly flavored articles, 
if fed to hens, injure the flavor of the eggs. A like result 
may occur if eggs are stored in places where the air is 
tainted by decaying vegetables. 

When cooking eggs, the lower the temperature the 
better. The albumen of egg plainly shows coagulation at 
about 160 0 F. The white then grows almost opaque, 
but is quite tender and jelly-like. At 212 0 F., the 
albumen becomes stiff. It has been proved that the time 
required for digesting a soft-boiled egg is a little short of 
two hours, while a hard-boiled egg needs as long as three 
hours. In dishes where the hard-boiled white is chopped 
fine, it may be less of a tax on the digestive organs. Fried 
eggs, “turned over'’ are perhaps as indigestible a form as 
could be invented. The harmful effect of a high degree 
of heat on the texture of albumen is plainly shown in the 
toughness of sponge cake or angel cake baked in too hot 
an oven. The curdling of custard is another, altogether 
too familiar, example. However, the coagulation of albu¬ 
men by heat serves a useful purpose in clearing coffee, 
soups and jellies. For this, the white of egg, being almost 
a pure solution of albumen, is used. When mixed through 
the liquid and heated gradually, it gathers up any loose 
particles and holds them, thus leaving the liquid clear. In 
breaking eggs a little of the white always clings to the 
shell. So, if one wishes to economize, the shells may be 
crushed—after the outside has been well washed—and then 
used for clarifying. 


jo ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

When eggs are combined with other ingredients it is 
generally for the purpose of giving lightness, or for thick¬ 
ening and enriching. If used for making a mixture light, 
they need considerable beating, but if added for thickening, 
they require a small amount of beating. 

With regard to the relative cost of eggs and meat, it 
has been decided that eggs at twelve cents the dozen, are 
cheaper food than meat. When eggs cost twenty-five cents 
the dozen they are more expensive than meat, as a source 
of proteid. 

Since eggs contain no starch, and furnish food in a 
concentrated form, they should be served with starcny 
foods of the coarser kinds, such as potatoes, or bread made 
from either rye or whole wheat flour. It is well to serve 
at the same meal with eggs, some fruits or vegetables hav¬ 
ing considerable cellulose, as apples, peaches, pears, spinach, 
tomatoes or asparagus. 

Eggs are used in other ways than as food. In the 
manufacture of photographic paper, there is large demand 
for the whites of eggs. The yolks, also, have certain uses 
in the arts. 

There are on the market a number of egg substitutes, 
egg powders, custard powders and the like. While some of 
these contain eggs others do not. Hence, their use is 
questionable even in preparing food for persons in good 
health. For invalids, who may need proteid for nourish¬ 
ment. it is. very unwise to depend upon such articles. 

Reading: Eggs as Food, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 128. 

SHELLFISH. 

In cookery, the name shellfish is commonly given to 
oysters, clams, mussels, scallops and other similar creatures 
enclosed in shells. Between shellfish and fish there are 
many points of difference, one of the most noticeable being 
the fact that shellfish have no bones—only a bony covering. 

The shrimp, prawn, lobster and crab are also some¬ 
times called shellfish but their bodies are jointed, and their 
covering is less hard, being more of a crust than a shell. 

OYSTERS. 

Chemical Composition. 

Water 88.3, proteid 6.1, carbohydrates 3.3, mineral 
matter 1.9, fat 1.4. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


71 


Among shellfish, the oyster is the most popular food, 
and has been so from ancient times. The early Romans 
cultivated oysters, without them no feast being thought 
complete. 

When the first settlers came to this continent, they 
found the Indians dealing in oysters. The coast dwellers 
collected the shellfish and sold to tribes living inland. 

Not only does the oyster form a favorite food of man, 
but it is much liked by certain sea creatures. The star-fish 
and whelk are probably the greatest destroyers of oysters, 
and sometimes cause heavy loss to the oyster-farmer. 

Because of the extensive traffic in oysters there is 
much danger that they may become extinct, so the United 
States government has adopted means for their cultivation. 

The oyster, when young floats about for a short time, 
and then settles', usually on a rock or some other firm 
substance, and remains there—unless removed by force— 
for the rest of its life. It has no means for moving about, 
not even a foot for digging as has the clam. 

In structure, the oyster is a soft mass, held between 
two oblong, rather flat shells (or, a shell having two 
valves). Of these, the lower, on which the oyster always 
rests, is deeper than the upper. The shells are held together 
at one end by a sort of hinge. Near the other and broader 
end is a dark spot, commonly called the blue spot, or in¬ 
correctly, the eye. Fastened to this spot, on either valve, 
is a tough muscle by which the oyster can open its shell to 
obtain food, or close it against enemies. The oyster has 
no mouth but there is a small opening near the hinge, 
through which food passes. It breathes by means of gills, 
four thin layers of substance about its outer edge. The 
heart consists of two lobes which may be seen near the 
tough muscle connecting the shells. 

Oysters live in shallow water along the sea-coast, their 
places of growth being called oyster beds. If the oysters 
happen to be scattered some distance apart, they reach a 
larger size than when crowded close together. In the 
latter case many of the oysters at the base of the pile die 
because they can not open their shells for air or food. 

The various nations raising oysters have adopted dif¬ 
ferent substances to which the young oysters may cling. In 


72 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Holland, tiles set up on edge, are placed throughout the 
oyster beds. The Japanese provide branches of bamboo. 
In Florida, the roots of the mangrove trees, growing far 
out into the water, afford a natural support to the oyster. 
In most of the large oyster beds of the United States, the 
owners put down clean oyster shells, pebbles or rough 
stones. 

Oysters are obtained by tonging or dredging, the latter 
method being used when the oysters are clustered thickly 
and the former when they are scattered singly. Often 
the young oysters, when from an inch to an inch and a 
half in length, are taken from places where they grow near 
together, and “planted" farther apart in other beds. The 
object of this is to give more room for growth, as the 
larger oysters bring the higher price. 

Salt oysters are often freshened by being taken from 
the ocean and placed for a day or two near the mouth of a 
river where they may absorb fresh water. Under such 
treatment, the oyster loses some salt, and also certain other 
flavoring matters. This method is usually called plumping 
or fattening. Often, however, the oysters are not truly 
fattened, but only swelled, or bloated, by the amount of 
fresh water absorbed. For the same purpose, retail dealers 
sometimes put into tubs or cans of oysters a large amount 
of ice or cold water. Oysters so treated may be known 
by their pale color. - They shrivel badly in cooking. Thus, 
while they still retain the name oyster, the housekeeper 
buys mostly water—and at a high price. This practice 
of plumping, and the use of preservatives, are the main 
reasons for avoiding oysters that have been shipped to 
points far distant from the sea coast. 

Even under the best conditions, in buying oysters, we 
pay mainly for flavor and delicacy of texture. Both of 
these features are of considerable value in the diet. In 
addition, oysters have the virtue of being an easily digested 
food. This is because they contain very little muscular 
fibre. Also in the oyster there occurs a ferment which aids 
in its digestion, when eaten raw. But as regards nutri¬ 
ment and cost, oysters are an expensive food. For twenty- 
five cents we can obtain only about one-fourth of a pound 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


73 


of oysters, while for the same money we might have ten 
pounds of corn-meal. Besides the oysters consist mainly 
of water, while the corn-meal is almost solid food. 

Sometimes oysters are found having a green color, and 
it was formerly thought that they might be poisonous. 
Now, however, this is not considered objectionable and 
the color is believed to be due to certain tiny vegetable 
growths on which the oyster feeds. In England, green 
oysters are preferred. 

In preparing oysters, whether for serving raw, or for 
cooking, they should first be drained free of juice. (If 
this liquor is needed for use, it should be strained through 
a fine sieve.) After this, it is wise to lift each oyster singly, 
and examine it closely for pearls, or bits of shell. One 
should take especial care if the oysters are to be served 
raw, as in this form they are swallowed without mastica¬ 
tion, and a sharp piece of shell might cause serious injury 
or even death. 

Either cayenne pepper or paprika is preferable to black 
or white pepper in seasoning oysters or other shellfish. Not 
only do the red peppers blend better with the flavor of such 
sea-food, but they also stimulate digestion. 

Although the shell of the oyster might appear to be 
worthless, it is sometimes ground fine, and used as a fer¬ 
tilizer. When coarsely crushed, it meets with ready sale 
as a food for poultry. 

Pearls, one of the curiosities of nature, are seldom 
found in the oyster of our coasts. When they do occur, 
they are usually poor in size and color. The United States 
has a fairly important industry in pearls from fresh-water 
mussels, for which Iowa is the main shipping point. In 
Northern Australia and adjacent countries pearl-fishing is 
a great commercial enterprise. 

Readings: Life and Her Children (Buckley), pp. 107- 
no; Everybody’s Magazine, Vol. XN., pp. 46-56, 011 "The 
Quest of the PearlFood Products of the World 
(Greene), chap. X., on “Shellfish and Turtle.” 

CLAMS. 

The clam of our day was formerly called clamp, from 
the firm clamp of its shells. In general structure this 
shellfish is much like the oyster. 


74 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


The two main varieties in use as food are the qua- 
haug, also spoken of as the round or hard clam, and the 
long or soft clam. In the New England States the word 
“clam” means the soft clam. This part of our country has 
long been celebrated for its “clam-bake,” a method of 
cooking learned from the Indians. Some say that the 
well-known clam chowder, also, was first made by the 
Indians, while others claim that the early French settlers 
invented the dish. 

The quahaug is ‘the common clam of the New York 
markets. When well-grown its muscular fibre is very 
tough, so this clam is generally chopped fine, and given 
long, gentle cooking. Little Neck clams were originally 
a choice small variety from Little Neck Bay. Now, any 
young quahaugs are called Little Necks. They are much 
used for serving raw. 

It is rather curious that the money or “wampum” of 
the coast Indians was in former times often made from 
hard clam shells, the blue spots being especially prized for 
this purpose. Such money was either carried loose, or 
strung on sinew thread, sometimes six feet in length. Not 
only w r as it in use among the Indians, but the Dutch and 
English traders adopted it in preference to European coins. 

lobster; crab. 

Both the lobster and the crab have been found difficult 
to digest. This is thought to’ be due to their close, tough 
muscular fibre. They frequently feed on refuse matter, 
which may make their flesh unfit for food. Because they 
are a tax on the digestive organs, one should never take 
with them very cold dishes. (Lobster salad and ice cream 
eaten in haste have often caused repentance at leisure.) 

While lobsters and crabs are usually sold alive, some¬ 
times they are boiled before being placed on the market.* 
It is unwise to buy them in the cooked state, as one can 
not decide from their outward appearance how long they 
have been kept. Such food, when eaten stale, may cause 
ptomaine poisoning. 

Reading: Life and Her Children (Buckley), pp. 167- 

172 . 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


75 


FISH. 

Average chemical composition of white-fleshed fish: 
Water 75 to 80 per cent, proteid 12 to 18 per cent, fat and 
mineral matter, about 4 to 6 per cent. 

For cooking purposes, fish are classed as dark-fleshed 
and white-fleshed. The dark-fleshed fish have fat through¬ 
out the body. Among the best known of these are salmon, 
mackerel and herring. White-fleshed fish—such as cod, 
perch, catfish—have most of the oil in the liver. 

Dark-fleshed fish are more nutritious, but not so easily 
digested as those having white flesh. Salmon is consid¬ 
ered the most nutritious fish, ranking about equal to beef 
in this respect. 

Fish have their finest flavor, and are the most whole¬ 
some when used quite fresh. In buying fish, one should 
select only those having firm flesh, red gills, full bright 
eyes and bright scales. (Certain kinds which have no scales 
are usually skinned before being offered for sale.) 

. As soon as fish is received, the scales should be re¬ 
moved—also the head, usually—and the intestines. After 
scraping all blood from the backbone, the fish should be 
rinsed in cold water. (This needs to be done quickly, so 
that flavor may not be lost.) Then it is well to sprinkle 
the fish inside and out with salt and pepper. 

If not ready to use the fish at once, it should be put 
in as cool a place as possible; but not in the refrigerator 
for fear it may give an unpleasant flavor to other foods. 

In winter, one can sometimes obtain none except frozen 
fish. They should be used as soon as possible after thaw¬ 
ing, because they spoil quickly. 

I11 soaking salted fish, such as mackerel, the salt draws 
out most rapidly if they are put to soak with the flesh 
side down. 

When using sardines, salmon, or other canned fish, 
the entire contents of the can should be turned out, as soon 
as opened. Even if a part is to be kept for later use, it ' 
must not be left in the tin. Cases of poisoning have been 
traced to lack of such care. 


76 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


In the various methods of cooking—especially that of 
boiling—fish need to be handled gently. The flesh breaks 
apart easily, because the muscles are large and there is but 
little connective tissue between the fibres. 

Fish should be served with starchy food, potatoes or 
bread being the most suitable. White-fleshed fish need 
the addition of melted butter, or other fat. 

For most persons, the flavor of fish is improved by 
using with it vinegar, lemon juice, cucumbers with a sour 
dressing, or tomatoes. These are hygienic adjuncts be¬ 
cause they make the fibrin more tender, help to dissolve 
the lime, of which fish contains a large amount, and aid in 
the digestion of fat. 

Some persons still hold to the old belief that fish is 
good food for the brain. There are no facts to prove this. 
Nations living almost entirely on fish have not shown 
more than the average intelligence. Unfortunately there 
is no known brain food. The best way to have the brain 
in good working order is by keeping the entire body well 
nourished. 

Another old idea—that fish should be eaten on Friday 
—has a better foundation. With some, this is a religious 
belief. There exists also a physiological reason. Fish, being 
a less hearty food than meat, and more easily digested, 
allows the system somewhat of a rest. Thus it is probably 
wise to eat fish on some one day of the week. This need 
not be any special day, so far as hygiene is concerned. But, 
on account of the religious belief held by many, and the 
large sales of fish on Friday, dealers in small cities and 
towns receive their fresh stock of fish that day—hence it 
is the best time to buy. 

Certain portions of fish form the basis for various 
manufactured articles. Thus, the liver of the cod supplies 
the well-known cod-liver oil; while the roe of the sturgeon 
is packed as caviar. From the sturgeon is obtained, also, 
material for the finest grade of isinglass. There are besides, 
fish pastes and fish flours, while even a kind of jewelrv is 
made from the scales of certain fish. Some coarse varieties 
of fish, unfit for food, are made into commercial fertilizer. 
This is, at present, quite a large industry. The same prin¬ 
ciple was long ago applied in a small way by the early 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


77 


settlers of New England, one of whom left the account 
that “according to the manner of the Indians, we manure 
our ground with herrings”—“an acre thus dressed will 
yield as much corn as three acres without fish.” 

With our usual wastefulness of natural resources, some 
of our finest food fishes have been caught in such numbers 
that they are in danger of becoming extinct. To prevent 
this, the United States government now maintains fish 
hatcheries, from which the waters are re-stocked. Among 
the most noted fish thus cared for are the salmon of the 
western coast, the whitefish of the Great Lakes, and the 
shad of eastern waters. 

One cause for the present scarcity in many kinds of 
fish is the enormous canning industry. Of this, the most 
important branch is the salmon canning of the Pacific 
Coast, while next to it stands the sardine canning of Maine. 
Also, various kinds of fish—the cod, mackerel and herring 
being familiar examples—are preserved by drying, salting 
or smoking. 

Not only in our own day, but as far back as history 
can trace, fish rank as an important article of diet. The 
early coast tribes had little other food, and their main in¬ 
dustries were the making of hooks, spears, nets and other 
articles of use in fishing. 

Among the ancient Romans, even a meeting of Sen¬ 
ators might be adjourned to allow attendance at a sale of 
fresh fish. To the Assyrians fish were of so much moment 
that their main deity was a water-god, and they built 
statues representing him as part man and part fish. In 
fact, every nation, both in ancient and modern times, has 
quaint customs and legends relating to fish. 

Readings: Fish as Food, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 85; 
Anthropology (Tyler), pp. 212-214; Charicles (Becker), 
pp. 288-289; The Pleasures of the Table (Ellwanger), pp. 
26-27, 32-35, 42-47; Home Life in Colonial Days (Earley, 
pp. ns-125; Food Products of the World (Greene), chap. 
IX., on “Fish;” The Boston Cooking School Magazine, 
Voh XIII., pp. 403-407, on “The Catching of the Mackerel.'’ 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


7*' 


MEAT. 

Chemical Composition. 

Typical example: Beef. 

Water 75., proteid 14., fat 10., mineral matter 1. 

By the word meat is usually meant the flesh of the 
domestic animals used for food, while the term game 
applies to wild animals or birds, and poultry to domestic 
fowl. 

The domestic animals supplying meat are beeves, 
calves, sheep, lambs and swine. 

Meat is made up of bundles of muscular fibre, held 
together by connective tissue. A layer of fat occurs on 
the outside, and there is also some mingled through the 
lean or muscular part. Marrow, a peculiar kind of fat, is 
found in certain bones. Bone, the framework of the ani¬ 
mal, forms a large percentage of the weight. Cartilage, 
commonly called gristle, occurs mainly about the joints. 
(When cooked, especially at a low degree of heat, cartilage 
yields gelatine.) Meat also contains flavoring matters, 
called extractives. 

Within a short time after an animal is slaughtered, its 
flesh becomes tough. Dealers generally keep meat for a 
week, and often much longer, because there is gradually 
formed in it an acid which acts on the fibres making them 
more tender. After meat has been kept for some time its 
flavor changes, and it is thought by many to be finer than 
when fresh. 

As soon as meat is brought in from market, it shou-d 
be taken out of the wrapping paper. This often contains 
chemicals that may spoil the flavor of the meat, or even 
make it unwholesome. Also, the paper soaks up some ;>f 
the juices of the meat, which thus becomes less nourishing. 

Any bruised or discolored parts should be cut away, 
and bits of sawed bone scraped off. If the meat is not 
to be used at once, it is well to remove any moist looking 
connective tissue, and also the marrow—if any—from the 
bone. Then the meat should be put in a cool place. If set 
in the refrigerator, it must never be laid directly on the 
ice. This method draws the juices out of the meat, and 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


7 9 


makes the refrigerator uncleanly. Nor should the meat 
even be placed beside the ice, as the ice-chamber is the 
warmest part of the refrigerator. 

it is best not to sprinkle salt and pepper on the meat 
when putting it away, unless the weather is very warm, 
and the meat seems likely to spoil. Even in this case, it is 
better to cook the meat slightly, just enough to sear the 
outside, and heat it throughout. If salt is put on uncooked 
meat, part of the juice is drawn out, and thus some flavor 
and nutriment are lost. Besides, salt toughens the fibres. 

Meat, before cooking, needs to have surplus fat trim¬ 
med off, and to be wiped with a damp cloth. (The wash¬ 
ing of meat wastes its juices.) 

The heat of cooking affects meat in several different 
ways. A low temperature makes the fibres tender, softens 
the connective tissue, and also the fat. For soup making, 
when it is desirable to draw out the juices of the meat, T 
should be covered with cold water and allowed to heat 
very slowly. 

A very high temperature hardens the fibres, toughens 
the connective tissue, and makes the fat somewhat un¬ 
wholesome. 

Meat may be cooked under-done, rare or well-done. 
By under-done meat is meant that which has a sort of 
purplish red color, and a flabby texture. Such meat may 
often be unwholesome. Rare meat is that in which the 
coloring matter remains red, although the heat has stiffened 
the flesh so that it seems fairly firm. Any lean, outer 
surface of such meat looks “puffed up,” because the water 
held in the juice has been expanded into steam, by heat. 
Well-done meat has a brownish gray color throughout, and 
is quite firm, sometimes even tough, when cut. Such 
meat is cooked longer, or at a higher degree of heat that] 
rare meat. Of the two, rare meat has the finer flavor and 
is the more easily digested, but the thorough cooking of 
the well-done meat is more likely to destroy any disease 
germs present. 

As salt toughens the fibres of meat, seasoning should 
not be added until nearly the end of the cooking, or in 
some cases not until the cooking is finished. 


8o 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


There are several reasons for re-heating meat that 
must be served a second time. Cold meat, and cold arti¬ 
cles in general, are more of a tax upon the digestive organs 
than is warm food. Pieces of meat not large enough to 
use well alone may be combined with vegetables or a sauce, 
as an economy. The same kind of meat served under 
different guise at various meals will be more palatable than 
if treated in one way at all times. When re-heating meat 
that is tender, one should let it cook only a short time; 
otherwise, it loses flavor and becomes less digestible. In 
case the meat be tough or underdone it is best steamed or 
simmered very gently until tender. The liquid in which 
it has been cooked may form the basis for a sauce. 

Meat for hash or similar dishes should be freed from 
fat, gristle and bone. The meat may be chopped fine, 
sliced thin or cut into small blocks of an even size. 

Poultry and all light-colored meats are most suitably 
served with a white or light-colored sauce. With the dark 
meats a brown or other dark sauce is appropriate. 

As a rule, warmed-over meat needs more seasoning 
and flavoring than fresh meat. 

Re-heated meat is served under many different names, 
such as mince, hash, croquettes, timbales, etc. 

The foods suitable to serve with meat are the starches, 
as bread, potatoes, rice and macaroni. Watery fruits and 
vegetables have value also, because the acids they contain 
soften the fibres of meat, and aid in digesting the fat. 

Opinions differ greatly with regard to the amount of 
meat needed in the daily diet. Probably most Americans 
now do not eat meat more than twice a day. Many think 
it wiser to use meat at only one meal. Some omit meat 
altogether, and depend on other foods for proteid. While 
there are dangers from an over amount of meat in the 
diet, it appears true, in general, that persons who eat very 
little proteid become weak, feel “run-down,” and take dis¬ 
eases easily. It is believed now, that by eating slowly, (so 
that food is divided into very fine particles) one may be 
strong and healthy on much less, both of proteid and of 
other foods than was formerly thought necessary. 

With regard to the nutriment and digestibility of meat, 
it is found that the tender cuts are the most easily digested, 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


81 


but those parts that have grown tough by exercise are the 
most nutritious. However, by careful, slow cooking, and 
a wise addition of flavoring and seasoning matters, the 
tougher portions may be made tender and perhaps readily 
digestible. 

To a great extent, the retail price of meat is based on 
the quality of tenderness. The more tender, the greater 
the cost. As each animal contains only a few tender por¬ 
tions, the scarcity of such cuts aids in keeping up the 
price. Hence, persons who economize wisely, buy those 
tougher portions whose first cost is low, and nutriment 
considerable. 

Among the meats, beef is considered the most nutri¬ 
tious, and the most stimulating. Mutton stands as the most 
easily digested (aside from the fat) because it has short, 
tender fibres. Veal, being from an immature animal, is a 
meat that spoils quickly. It needs care both in preparing 
and cooking in order to be wholesome. Pork, on account 
of the large percentage of fat, is not a suitable food for 
summer use. Being a meat in which disease germs are 
often found, pork needs very thorough cooking. 

Fresh meat is that obtained by recent slaughtering, or 
which has been kept only by refrigeration. The term 
cured meat—salted, pickled or smoked applies to meat kept 
by the use of salt, vinegar, spices or smoke, either singly 
or in combination. 

As a rule, fresh meats are more easily digested than 
cured meats. Pork seems to be an exception. By some 
it is thought that the salt separates the globules of fat, 
which can then be acted upon readily by the digestive juices. 

Even among uncivilized peoples, some ways of keep¬ 
ing meat for future use have long been known. In those 
parts of both North and South America where the atmos¬ 
phere is warm and dry, the native tribes cut meat into 
thin sheets or strips and. expose it on poles or racks in 
the open air, where it may dry by the heat of the sun. 
This is called jerked meat. Sometimes a different flavor 
is given by smoking it, a slow fire for this purpose being 
built beneath the rack. The North American Indians long 
ago made pemmican by drying the meat, pounding it very 
fine, and packing it in buffalo rawhide. To exclude air, 


82 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


the pemmican was covered with a layer of marrow fat. The 
early tribes knew only these two methods—drying and 
smoking. Curing by means of salt was an invention of 
civilized man. 

Until within recent times most well-to-do families, 
especially those living in country districts, cured their own 
meat. Such work formed an important and laborious part 
of the household duties. Now, the amount of home-cured 
meat is very small compared to that put up by fhe huge 
packing houses in Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City and 
elsewhere. 

The packing industry began in New England, during 
the seventeenth century, when large quantities of pork 
were packed in barrels for shipment abroad. So greatly 
has the business grown, both for home use and for export 
trade that the value of the swine slaughtered in one year 
averages over three hundred million dollars. This is only 
a small part of the income from such sources, for packers 
now prepare meat from all kinds of domestic animals. 
Since refrigerator cars became known it has been possible 
to ship meat in the fresh state to any part of our country. 
It is also sent to Europe, being taken out of the refrigerator 
cars, and placed at once in cold storage rooms on the 
ocean steamships. (Abroad, the best cuts of American 
beef often retail for as much as forty cents the pound.I 
As a rule, only the choicer parts of the animal are shipped 
for use in the fresh state. 

Of the poorer portion, or offal, hides form the most 
important part, bringing on an average, six dollars each. 
Tongues rank next, and are sold either in the fresh or 
cured state. Fat stands third in value. Much of the oil 
drawn from it is used in the manufacture of oleomargarine. 
From pork fat, two grades of lard are made—‘leaf lard 
and steam lard. The former is the firmer and better, being 
rendered out of the fat lying about the kidneys. Steam 
lard, the poorer grade, is made of scraps taken from any 
part of the animal. The fat has other uses also, such a? 
the making of machine oil, soap, etc. Any inferior lean 
cuts are canned, dried or made into sausage and other 
preparations. Gelatine is obtained by cooking the .cartilage, 
bone, etc. The bones are also ground for fertilizers. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


83 


Besides these, there are many other uses for the refuse 
parts. It is said that the packers make their profit, not 
on the choice portions of the animal, but from the many 
articles made of the offal. 

Readings: Meats, Composition and Cooking, Farmers’ 
Bulletin No. 34; Home Economics (Parloa), pp. 168-191; 
Food Products of the World (Greene), chap. III., IV, 
V., VI. 

SUITABLE COMBINATIONS OF FOOD. 

t _ 

WINTER BREAKFASTS. 

Hearty Meal. 


Oranges. 

Oatmeal Mush, with Milk. 
Pork Chops. Creamed Potatoes. 
Corn Dodgers. 

Coffee. 


Light Meal. 


Oranges. 
Oatmeal, Milk. 
Coffee. 


Hearty Meal. 


Corn Meal Mush. 

Creamed Dried Beef. Potato Cakes. 
Graham Gems. 

Stewed Apricots. Cocoa or Coffee. 


Light Meal. 


Graham Gems. 
Stewed Apricots. 
Cocoa. 










8 4 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Hearty Meal. 


Baked Apples. 

Rye Mtfsh. 

Hamburg Steaks. Stewed Hominy. 
(Bread, Butter.) 

Stale Bread Griddle Cakes. Syrup. 
Cereal Coffee. 


Light Meal. 


Baked Apples. 

Rye Mush. 
Cereal Coffee. 


SUMMER BREAKFASTS. 


Hearty Meal. 


Strawberries. 

Boiled Rice. 

Poached Eggs. Young Onions. 
Dry Toast. 

Coffee. 


Light Meal. 


Strawberries. 
Dry Toast. 
Cocoa. 


Hearty Meal. 


Cantaloupe. 

Germea. 

Broded Mutton Chops. Radishes. 
Drop Biscuits. 

Cereal Coffee. 












A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


*5 


Light Meal. 


Cantaloupe. 
Germea. 
Cereal Coffee. 


Hearty Meal. 


Peaches. 

Cream of Wheat. 

Browned Hash. Panned Tomatoes. 
(Bread, Butter.) 

Cocoa or Coffee. 


Light Meal. 


Peaches. 

Cream of Wheat. 
Cocoa. 


WINTER DINNERS. 


Tomato Soup. 

Broiled Steak. 

Baked Sweet Potatoes. Creamed Cabbage. 
(Bread, Butter.) 

Prune Drop Dumplings. Coffee. 


Vegetable .Soup. 

Roast Spare Rib. Apple Sauce. 
Cole Slaw. Stewed Navy Beans. 
Corn Bread. 

Currant Bread Pudding. Coffee. 

Roast Beef. Brown Sauce. 
Mashed Potatoes. Spinach. 

Stewed Carrots. 
Old-fashioned Short Bread. 
Canned Blackberry Pie. Coffee. 











86 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


SUMMER DINNERS. 


Stuffed and Rolled Steak. 
Browned Potatoes. Stewed Asparagus. 
Corn Pudding. 

(Bread, Butter.) 


Strawberry Tapioca. Coffee. 
Roast Lamb or Mutton. 

Spiced Peaches. 

Baked Macaroni. Stewed Green Peas. 
(Bread, Butter.) 

Fresh Cherry Pie. Coffee. 


Baked Fish. 

New Potatoes with Cream Sauce. Stuffed Tomatoes. 

String Beans. 

(Bread, Butter.) 

Cup Custard. Coffee. 


WINTER SUPPERS. 


Corn Meal Mush. 

Frizzled Beef with Egg. Pepper Sauce. 
Hashed Browned Potatoes. 

(Bread, Butter.) 

Stewed Raisins. Lemon Drop Cakes. 

Tea. 


Milk Toast. 

Cold Boiled Ham. Lye Hominy. 
Biscuit. 

Canned Apples. Gingerbread. 
Cocoa or Tea. 


Rye Mush. 

Creamed Salmon. Potato Salad. 
(Bread, Butter.) 

Preserved Plums. Seed Cookies. 
Cereal Coffee or Buttermilk. 









87 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 
SUMMER SUPPERS. 


Boiled Rice. 

Cold Roast Beef. Sliced Tomatoes. 
Corn Gems. 

Raspberries. Graham Wafers. 
Tea. 


Cream of Wheat. 

Fried Chicken. 

Hot Biscuit. 

Sliced Peaches. Sponge Cake. 
Lemonade. 


Cold Boiled Tongue. Corn Fritters. 
(Bread, Butter.) 

Baked Pears. Peanut Cookies. 
Hot or Iced Tea. 


FOR THE SCHOOL LUNCH BASKET. 


Roast Beef Sandwiches. Spiced Cherries. 
Nut Drop Cakes. 


Cottage Cheese. Whole Wheat Sandwich. 

Apricots. 


Frizzled Beef Sandwich. Potato Salad. 

Apple. 


Sardines. Rye Bread Sandwich. 
Orange. 


Peanut Sandwich. Stewed Pears. 
Cup Custard. 


Beef Loaf Sandwich. Sliced or Whole Tomato. 

Sponge Cake. 


Home-made Sausage. Parsley Sandwich. 
Stewed Prunes. 













8d 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Baked Beans. Boston Brown Bread. 

Apple. 


Cold Roast Chicken. Celery Sandwich. 

Peaches. 


Chopped Cheese Sandwich (whole wheat bread). 
Apple Sauce. Oatmeal Cookies. 

Mutton Sandwich. Green Tomato Pickle. 

Grapes. 


Egg Sandwich. 

Baked Apple. Gingerbread. 


PART II. COOKERY. 

FIRE. FUELS. STOVES. 

During an early period in the world’s history, the use 
of fire was unknown. People then lived on uncooked 
foods, such as nuts, wild fruits and herbs. They ate even 
fish and meat in a raw state. But, after fire was discov¬ 
ered, the cooking of food gradually became general, so that, 
man is now often called “the cooking animal.” 

Among the lower animals, even the boldest are afraid 
of fire. For this reason, hunters keep a fire burning during 
the night, when camping in regions where dangerous ani¬ 
mals may appear. Before man became well-accustomed 
to the use of fire, it was to him, an object of dread, and 
also, of worship. Tile readily saw its harmful effects in 
the forest fires, in the stroke of lightning, of in the eruption 
of volcanoes; while the good offices of fire appeared as it 
heated his rude dwelling or cooked his food; also, in the 
great extent of vegetable growth under the heat of the sun. 
So, the sun, as the source of heat and' light, became to 
primitive man an object of worship. At a later time, there 
was kept in the heathen temples a sacred fire. Certain 
persons had charge of this, and if they let it die out, they 
were punished by death. Even at the present time, one 
finds many relics of the curious beliefs and customs regard¬ 
ing fire. 







A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


Sg 


In the early days, it was a difficult matter to kindle 
a fire. Matches being unknown, the fire had to be started 
by rubbing two sticks together briskly until a spark 
appeared. (Later, there was an instrument called the fire 
drill.) Some people struck together two pieces of iron 
pyrites in order to obtain a spark. Afterward, the use of 
the burning glass to focus the sun’s rays became known. 
The early settlers of our own country had no better means 
than a tinder box for starting a fire. Later, matches were 
invented. Their virtue lies in the fact that they are tipped 
with some material which catches fire easily, such as phos¬ 
phorus. This, when pure, burns at ordinary temperature. 

In order to obtain a fire suitable for household cook¬ 
ing, four things are needful: (i) a stove or range to hold 
the fire; (2) fuel; (3) some substance to start the blaze; 
(4) a current of air to supply oxygen. 

Of the two main gases which form the air, oxygen is 
one. It has the power to combine with many elements, 
and in the process heat is given off. This occurs slowly 
with some substances, and quickly with others. The action, 
when so rapid that heat may be noticed at once, is called 
burning or combustion. 

Speaking in a general way, the word fuel means any 
substance which burns readily and for a considerable length 
of time; and which is neither dangerous nor inconvenient 
to use. That part which, in its combination with oxygen 
forms heat is called carbon. 

The temperature at which any substance begins to burn 
is called its kindling point. Each substance has its own 
particular kindling point. Some do not burn until intense 
heat is applied. These features may be seen in building a 
fire. When a match is struck the phosphorus, or similar 
material, instantly catches fire. This ignites the wood of 
the match, which in turn is applied to the kindling used in 
laying the fire. Although the kindling may begin to burn 
at once, not until it throws out considerable heat will the 
heavier wood or coal above it catch fire. 

Common fuels may be classed as solid (coal, coke, 
peat, wood, charcoal), liquid (kerosene, alcohol, gasoline— 
this being converted into a gas), gaseous (natural and arti¬ 
ficial gas), electricity. 


90 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


SOLID FUELS. 

i 

WOOD. 

Although our forests are being rapidly diminished, 
wood, in some parts of the country, still forms the main 
fuel. 

Wood is commonly classed as hard and soft. The 
soft woods, such as pine or spruce, burn readily for the 
reason that they contain rosin. Also, their woody fibres 
are loosely held together, so that flame can easily pass 
through. The harder woods, as oak, hickory, maple, etc., 
are more compact, and do not catch fire so readily as the 
soft woods, nor burn away so rapidly. Thus hard wood is 
needed to form the body of a fire, while soft wood proves 
best suited for kindling. When using wood alone as a 
fuel, at least three-fourths should be hardwood. It is wise 
to have well-seasoned, dry wood, as green wood when 
heated, throws out so much moisture that it chills the fire. 
However, if one wishes to keep a fire burning slowly for 
a long while, some green wood may be mixed* with the 
dry wood. 

Care should be taken to have the wood cut of a length 
to fit easily into the stove. If too short, it allows waste 
space in the fire-box so that there enters more air than :*s 
needed, and the fuel burns away rapidly. Wood of too 
great a length may be a source of danger. In case the 
door to the fire-box or the lid of the stove be left open <o 
accommodate the wood, sparks may fly out into the room. 
Besides, the stove does not heat well, nor can it be kept 
at an even temperature. 

CHARCOAL. 

Charcoal is obtained from hard-wood which has been 
slowly charred in a kiln, the part which remains having a 
quite large amount of carbon. As charcoal absorbs mois¬ 
ture readily, it should be stored in a dry place. 

This fuel is seldom used in the homes of America, 
although many hotels employ it for the broiling of meats. 
It makes a very hot, even fire, well suited for such cook¬ 
ing. But one must be careful to use it in a well-ventilated 
room, and to avoid breathing the fumes, which are very 
harmful. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


9 1 


COAL. 

It is believed that coal has been produced from damp 
vegetable matter which long ages ago became gradually 
buried under great masses of sand. By this heavy pres¬ 
sure, and also by the action of heat from the interior of 
the earth, the vegetable fibre was finally packed into a 
solid form. 

The regions in which coal occurs are called coal fields. 
Among such areas in the United States, there are three of 
especially large size. An eastern field extends from Penn¬ 
sylvania to Alabama, a central field from Illinois to Ken¬ 
tucky, and a west central area from Iowa to Texas. 

Although there are many varieties of coal, these may 
all be grouped in two classes, anthracite (hard) and bitum¬ 
inous (soft). 

Anthracite is noted as a clean coal, producing little 
soot, and making a steady fire which lasts a long time. 
It has been found the most satisfactory coal for cooking 
purposes. In appearance it is very glossy. A good quality 
is free from slate, and when burned, leaves scarcely any 
clinkers. 

Bituminous coal is less compact than anthracite, and 
thus breaks in irregular pieces. It has a dull appearance, 
throws out considerable smoke, and when burned and 
softened, may run together in somewhat large cakes. It is 
less cleanly than anthracite, and does not produce an even 
heat. Thus it is not an entirely satisfactory fuel for cook¬ 
ing purposes. 

Coal may be bought in various sizes, those most com¬ 
monly used in the cook stove or range being called stove, 
chestnut or pea. One should be particular to select the 
kind best suited to the size of the fire-box. If the coal is 
too small, it will slip through the grate unburned, and 
thus there occurs much waste. Should the coal be too 
large the fire is slow in kindling and difficult to regulate. 
A mixture of chestnut and small stove coal does well for 
most household ranges, while chestnut answers where there 
is a small fire-box. Pea coal, because cheap, is used in 
many households, but it does not yield much heat, and 
burns away quickly. In any kind of coal selected one 
should see that it is free from slate. This occurs in thin 


92 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


sheets, as black as coal, but with very little heating power. 

If there is, in or near one’s house, a space large enough 
for storing considerable coal, one may economize by laying 
in the year’s supply during the summer, when the price >s 
usually at its lowest. If coal is bought by the ton, one 
obtains more in proportion for the money than when buying 
by the basket or bushel. 


COKE. 

Coke is obtained from coal in the process of making 
illuminating gas. Certain kinds of coal are chosen and heat 
applied. By this means the gas is driven out, the solid 
portion remaining being the coke. It is light and porous 
on account of the tiny bubbles formed by the gas. Coke 
has several good features as a fuel, and compares well with 
anthracite, both in heating power and in cleanliness. But 
it proves less easy to maintain a coke fire at an even heat 
for a long time. There occurs especial difficulty in keeping 
a coke fire alive over night. Its moderate price is an advan¬ 
tage, although coke can seldom be obtained except from 
companies engaged in making illuminating gas. It very 
easily absorbs moisture, hence its storage place should be 
dry. 

In England, Germany and many other parts of Europe, 
the manufacture of briquettes is an important industry. 
These, sometimes called patent fuel, are a mixture of coal 
or coke dust with pitch, tar, or other substances. Thev 
are pressed into any form convenient for handling, usually 
being about the size and shape of a paving brick. 

PEAT. 

Abroad, peat is largely burned as a household fuel. 
This substance appears to be an early stage of coal, which 
has not been subjected to enough pressure and heat to 
become coal. It is obtained from peat bogs, mainly in 
Ireland and Holland. It is cut into blocks, which are then 
dried in the sun. Being a smoky fuel, it does not meet 
with ready sale among well-to-do classes; but because of 
its cheapness, it is, among the poor, an important article 
of commerce. In the United States, its use is scarcelv 
known. 


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93 


LIQUID FUELS. 

KEROSENE. 

Kerosene, now among the most common of liquid fuels, 
was scarcely known commercially until about fifty years 
ago. It is one of the products obtained by refining crude 
petroleum, or “coal oil.” In the United States this was 
first found in great quantities in Western Pennsylvania. 
There are now well-known areas also in Oklahoma, Kan¬ 
sas, Texas, etc. The only other oil fields whose size com¬ 
pares well with those in the United States are in the region 
of the Caspian Sea. The burning oil wells of that district 
.have for centuries been held sacred by sects who worship 
fire. 

As a source of heat for cooking, kerosene has several 
features in its favor. Kerosene stoves are cheap, and the 
fuel itself is not expensive. The heat is produced in a short 
time, yet does not make a room uncomfortably warm in 
summer. 

There are also disadvantages in the use of kerosene 
stoves. The wicks need much care. A wick turned up too 
high or unevenly trimmed may cause a deposit of soot 
on both the stove and utensils. Besides, the wicks require 
frequent changing or boiling in soda water to prevent an 
unpleasant odor. Also, unless the stove be kept very clean, 
the odor is objectionable. Some of the later makes of 
kerosene stoves do not need so much attention. 

In using any kerosene stove, one should be very care¬ 
ful about the following points:—have the oil tank almost 
full; never attempt to pour oil into the tank when the wicks 
are burning; do not let the fire burn so long that the oil 
tank becomes empty; use a good grade of kerosene, with 
flash point not below no degrees F. and higher is safer. 
By the flash point is meant the temperature at which vapor 
thrown off from the oil will catch fire. Also, do not keep 
a can of kerosene near the fire. Above all, in kindling a 
wood or coal fire, do not use the can of kerosene as a 
“starter.” (The kerosene can in the hands of a careless 
woman has probably done as much damage as “the gun 
that was not loaded” in the hands of a careless man.) 


94 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


GASOLINE. 

Gasoline, another product of petroleum, although 
bought in a liquid form, must be converted into a gas as 
it is burned for fuel. Even when used with care, and hi 
a well-made stove, it is a dangerous fuel, and should be 
managed only by persons of mature age. 

ALCOHOL. 

Alcohol, produced either from the fermentation of 
grain, or the distillation of wood, is at present seldom used 
as a fuel, except in chafing dishes, or in tiny alcohol stoves 
when preparing light nourishment for the sick. 

It may be burned by means either of a wick or of an 
asbestos pad. By the latter method, the heat may be 
easily regulated; but any unused alcohol remaining on the 
pad is wasted. With a wick fitted in a receptacle, any 
surplus alcohol is saved. 

In case the alcohol burns away before the cooking is 
finished, and it becomes necessary to add more one must see, 
before attempting this, that not a spark of fire remains, or 
there may be a serious accident. 

Grain alcohol is more expensive than wood alcohol, 
but makes a hotter fire, and its odor is not unpleasant. 

Wood alcohol has the advantage of being low in price, 
but its fumes are irritating, and it explodes rather easily. 
As wood alcohol is poisonous, it should never be mixed 
with either food or medicine. The bottle containing wood 
alcohol should always be correctly labeled. 

Both kinds of alcohol need to be closely stoppered, as 
they evaporate readily. 

If denatured alcohol ever becomes common, it should 
prove not only a cheap fuel, but a very useful one. 

GASEOUS FUELS. 

Among the gaseous fuels, several kinds are well- 
known. The cheapest form, natural gas, is obtained from 
the earth by boring as for petroleum. Although in quality 
it does not equal good coal gas, persons living in natural 
gas regions think themselves fortunate in having so inexpen¬ 
sive and easily regulated a fuel for lighting, cooking, and 
general heating purposes. 

In the United States, the largest supplies of natural 
gas occur in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


‘)r> 

Kansas, and Oklahoma. The latter state yields enormous 
amounts at present. 

The two most important kinds of artificial gas are (i ) 
that obtained from highly gaseous coal, and (2) that made 
by enriching water-gas. 

ELECTRICITY. 

As a means of supplying heat for cooking, electricity 
has many good features. It proves especially pleasing for 
summer use, since it throws but little heat into the room. 
Electric stoves do not need much cleaning. With the best 
make of such stoves the heat may be easily regulated, 
merely the turning of a switch giving high, moderate or 
low heat, as desired. Electric broilers cook meat very sat¬ 
isfactorily. Large ovens'answer their purpose well. In the 
small ovens, the heat is not always even at top and bottom. 
A disadvantage in electrical cooking appliances is that when 
out of order they must, in many cases, be shipped to the 
manufacturers for repairs. 

Because of the considerable expense—for wiring, for 
especially constructed stoves and for electric power— 
electricity as a source of heat for cooking is in use at 
present only in homes of the wealthy. 

STOVES, RANGES. 

Although the cook stove or range is a matter of course 
iii most American houses of the present, it did not come 
into use here until the country had been settled for over 
a century. The Pilgrims managed to do their cooking 
in huge open fire places. Later, heating stoves were in¬ 
vented by Benjamin Franklin and others. Cooking stoves 
did not become known until about the end of the eigh¬ 
teenth century. Because of the good moulding sand found 
near Albany and Troy, N. Y., these places early became 
^enters of stove manufacture. The trade in stoves, how¬ 
ever, was not general until after the opening of the Erie 
Canal—in the first quarter of the nineteenth century— 
which made transportation easier. 

A cook stove of the present day is a box-like structure 
of iron, resting on supports which set it up several inches 
above the floor. It is connected with the wall only where 
the stove pipe enters the chimney. 


96 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


On account of the heat thrown out from all its parts, 
a stove should be placed on either a brick hearth or a 
large piece of zinc. It is also well to have the wall near 
it covered with zinc. This is not needed in case the wall 
be of brick or tiles. 

Ranges are classed as set and portable. A portable 
range is placed against or close to the wall, but is not 
connected with it, save by the stove pipe entering the 
chimney. Hence, portable ranges, like stoves, may be 
moved from one house to another. 

A set range is built into the wall of a house. Such 
ranges, because much of their heat is absorbed by the 
wall, consume more fuel than portable ranges. Being 
built as a part of the house, a set range can not be re¬ 
moved in case the house changes hands. 

There are several points of difference between stoves 
and ranges. Stoves have an air space about them on all 
sides, while ranges are open only on three sides. The 
fourth side, or back, which is set next to the wall has a 
heavy upright piece of iron extending some distance above 
the cooking surface. Ranges, being set directly on the 
floor, differ from stoves in their means of support. Ranges 
have at least one warming oven, while stoves have none. 
Many kinds of ranges are provided with boilers for hot 
water, but stoves have nothing better than a tank for 
water. 

With regard to the fire-box, and the methods of regulat¬ 
ing heat, ranges and stoves are built similarly. 

The main parts of a coal stove are the fire-box, top or 
cooking surface, stove-pipe, dampers, oven and ash-pan. 

The fire-box has at least one side lined with fire¬ 
brick. This helps to retain the heat, and also prevents 
warping of the metal set between the fire-box and oven. 
In addition it keeps the oven from growing too hot on the 
side next to the fire-box. 

Forming the bottom of the fire-box is found the grate, 
which in old style stoves, was made of iron bars, firmly 
fixed in place, and for which a poker was needed when 
raking. At the present time, there are grates (called du¬ 
plex) made reversible, by means of cog-wheels. The gra*:e 
has two faces of different form, one being intended for 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


97 


use with wood, and the other when burning coal. In its 
ease of raking this grate is a saver of time, strength, and 
fuel. By merely turning it over gently, the ashes may be 
cut out, without disturbing the main body of the fire. 

Fuel should never be piled above the top of the fire¬ 
box. If this happens, the stove becomes red hot on top. 
The intense heat may ruin foods that are being cooked, 
and also the cooking utensils. Besides, the stove gradually 
becomes warped, and then the lids do not fit evenly; so 
heat escapes into the air instead of being kept in the stove. 
Thus, a red-hot stove is a waster of fuel, both at the time, 
and in its after effects. 

The ash-pan, below the fire-box, should be emptied 
daily. If ashes are allowed to accumulate, they cut off the 
draft, and the fire does not burn well. Also, they absorb 
heat, thus wasting fuel. When taking out the ashes, f 
they are very hot or contain live coals, extreme care should 
be used to put them in some place where they can not cause 
a fire. After cooling, ashes should be sifted in order to 
save any unburned coal. 

The inside of the oven should be kept clean. Also, the 
spaces around it need to be free from soot. This sub¬ 
stance is a poor conductor of heat, and if allowed to collect, 
the oven does not bake well. However, it is wise to leave 
a thin layer of ashes above the oven in case it has the 
fault of baking too brown on top. The space above the 
oven should be cleaned at a time when the fire is out, taking 
off the lids, and brushing the soot into the fire-box. There 
is in every range or stove a special opening through which 
the soot collecting under the oven may be removed. This 
“clean out” place is differently located in the various 
makes of stoves. It may be found under the fire-box, at 
the back of the stove, or under the oven door. One kind 
of stove has in the floor of the oven an opening covered 
by an iron plate that can be removed. 

The manner of setting and operating the dampers dif¬ 
fers in the various makes of stoves. Some dampers turn 
up and down, others slide to right and left, etc. But the 
general principle is the same in all. Any opening below 
the fire-box lets air in, and the oxygen causes the fire to 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


98 

burn faster. Any opening above the surface of the fire, > 
admits a current of cold air. This in passing across the 
top of the fire, checks it. 

On the inside of the stove, at the base of the stove 
pipe, there is always a damper for regulating the heat of 
the oven. To understand how this works, it is well to take 
off the lids, and then open and close this damper until one 
knows its effect in each case. When this plate is laid flat, 
leaving a direct opening into the stove pipe, the heat 
passes at once up the chimney, and the oven remains cool. 

If the damper be set so that the heat can not go directly 
into the chimney, then it must pass around the oven before 
making its escape, and thus the oven is heated. 

The uses of the stove pipe are to carry off gas and 
smoke, and to aid in creating a draft. It should be cleaned 
free of soot once a year. The chimney, also, needs clean¬ 
ing at times, especially if wood or soft coal be burned. 
These leave much of a deposit which makes the fire draw 
poorly, and which has often been the means of setting fire 
to the house. 

DIRECTIONS FOR BUILDING AND MANAGING A FIRE IN A 

COOK STOVE OR RANGE. 

Before beginning to build the fire, open the oven or 
smoke damper. Clean out the grate, empty the ash pan 
and replace it. Put some lightly crushed paper, excelsior or 
shavings into the fire-box. Above this lay small pieces 
of soft wood, at various angles, in order to admit a current 
of air to supply oxygen. Above them place larger pieces 
of hard wood. If coal is to be used, sprinkle a thin layer 
over the top. Brush any dust from the stove. Rub the 
cooking surface with paper. Apply blacking, putting on 
only a thin coat. Then light the fire. When the stove be¬ 
comes slightly warm, rub lightly and quickly with a dry 
blacking brush, to develop a polish. (In case cooking is 
carefully done, a stove does not need to be blackened every 
dav. It can be kept looking neat merely by an occasional 
brisk rubbing with paper.) After the fire is burning well, 
add fuel to half or three-fourths the depth of the fi r e-box. 
Allow this a few minutes to become warm, then set the 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


99 


smoke damper so that the heat may pass around the oven. 
After a good body of fire has formed, the lower damper 
may be partly or entirely closed. 

In case one wishes to keep a fire alive for several 
hours, but without much heat—as, for instance, between 
meals—there is needed first a good body of fire, with con¬ 
siderable fresh fuel on top. Then the lower damper may 
be partly closed, and the upper damper set open, or partly 
so. To lessen the draft still more, the damper in the stove 
pipe may be opened. Shortly before needing to use the 
fire again, ‘reverse the position of the dampers. Should 
the fire not begin to burn briskly in at least five minutes, 
‘ the direct draft to the chimney may be opened. It is not 
always wise to rake a slow fire. If done, the raking should 
be gentle. 

When using coal, one should remember that a good 
fire is neither red hot nor white hot. The latter indicates 
that the fire is dying out—the coal losing its heat and turn¬ 
ing to ashes. A good fire shows a bed of glowing coals 
beneath, and on top some black unlighted coal being grad¬ 
ually heated. 

When adding fuel, a more regular degree of heat is 
kept up, and less coal burned if only a thin layer be put 
on at a time. 

THE GAS RANGE. 

There are quite a number of reasons for the popularity 
of the gas range. It is more cleanly and also more easily 
and quickly regulated than a range burning wood or coal. 
Because little heat is thrown out by the range, it 
proves comfortable for summer use. Where natural gas, or 
cheap artificial gas may be had, its first cost is less than 
that of most other fuels. Because the gas does not need 
to be kept burning except when in actual use, a large 
amount of cooking may be done by an experienced person 
with a very small outlay for gas. The gas should be sup¬ 
plied to the range through a main pipe, having not less 
than a half-inch bore, inside measure—a larger size is 
better. 

The gas ranges in most common use have four burn¬ 
ers. Of these, one is usually a large, or “giant” burner, 
while there are three medium-sized burners. As a rule, 


IOO 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


there is also a small, or simmering burner. One shou (1 
never invest in a gas range unless it does have a simmer¬ 
ing burner, as this is a great fuel saver. Any article may 
be brought to a boil on one of the medium burners, and 
then moved to the simmering burner where the cooking 
will continue with a very small flame. 

To each burner there runs a supply pipe. One should 
study the location of each, and become familiar with its 
valve, and the proper w r ay of opening and closing. When 
not in use, the valves must be turned off very tight as 
gas will escape through even a tiny opening. 

DIRECTIONS FOR COOKING WITH A GAS RANGE. 

In lighting the gas, strike the match first, to make 
sure that it will burn, then give the gas valve about one 
turn—to the left—let the gas flow a second, then touch the 
match to it. Should the match be held at the opening be¬ 
fore the gas flows out, it may burn back—known by 
a roaring sound—in the pipe, instead of lighting properly 
at the burner. Turn the valve to the right when less heat 
is needed, and to the left to increase the heat. Always 
be careful that the flame burns blue and not yellow. The 
yellow flame, which shows unburned carbon, wastes gas. 
Have the gas turned up only as high as positively necessary 
for doing the cooking. In boiling or stewing, after the liquid 
comes to a boil, the flame may be turned very low, for 
the rest of the time—although the simmering burner saves 
still more gas. In case this small burner is in use, an as¬ 
bestos mat may be placed over any larger burner, and un¬ 
der utensils which hold food needing little heat. 

When an article has finished cooking, turn out the 
gas at once, even if intending to use it in a few minutes. 
Then light again when ready to use. Matches cost less 
than gas. 

By the use of a steamer, one may economize in fuel 
by cooking an entire meal over one burner. 

Care should be taken not to let anything boil over 
and clog the burners. In case this happens, they need 
to be thoroughly cleaned, or else they burn unevenlv 
and thus waste gas, besides being unsightly and perhaps 
giving off- an unpleasant odor. Under the top burners . 
there is a movable sheet of metal, usually galvanized iron, 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


IOI 


which should be taken out occasionally and well scrubbed. 

A gas range generally has two ovens, one above the 
burners for baking bread, cakes, etc., and the other, below 
the burners, for broiling meat, making toast, browning 
the top of foods, etc. As a rule, there are two oven burn¬ 
ers. Between these is a small burner, called a pilot. When 
wishing to heat the oven, first set both oven doors open. 
(If this is not done, there may be an explosion.) Then 
strike a match, turn on the pilot valve, and insert the match 
in the opening around the pilot, on the outside. When the 
pilot lights, turn on the two oven burners, which will catch, 
with a slight explosion, from the pilot. Turn off the pilot. 
Then close the upper oven door, and regulate the burners as 
desired before closing the lower door. The burners should 
be lighted about io or 15 minutes before one is ready to 
use the oven. In cooking most articles, one burner may 
be turned off after the oven has become well heated. Gen¬ 
erally, the back burner is the better to turn out, as the 
opening of the door to look at articles chills the front 
somewhat. Thus, if the front burner were turned out, 
baking might be uneven. In order to save gas, all heat 
may be turned off 5 minutes before baking is finished, as 
the range remains hot for a long time. 

Readings: The Fairy Land of Science (Buckley), 
pp. 171-192; Manual of Mythology (Murray), pp. 200- 
207, on the Story of Prometheus; Popular Science Monthly, 
Vol. X., p. 17, on “The Fire Worshipers;” Scientific 
American Supplement, Vol. 64, p. 39s, on “Oil Fields of 
the United States.” 

METHODS OF COOKING. 

The objects of cooking food are to make it more 
digestible, to improve its flavor and appearance and to 
destroy disease germs. The heat in such foods as are 
served hot aids digestion. Cooking is also of value for 
the reason that articles of different flavor may be com¬ 
bined, thus giving a pleasing variety to the diet. Most 
foods if served in the same way, day after day, soon be¬ 
come tiresome; then the appetite is lessened, and the diges¬ 
tive organs are not well stimulated. In case the market, 
or one’s purse, or one’s health, allows only a small choice 
of foods, these may often be made palatable by variety in 


102 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


the manner of cooking. 

Among the different classes of foods, those of animal 
orgin are more generally used in the cooked form-—at least 
by civilized nations—than those of vegetable origin. Most 
fruits and some vegetables are best in flavor when served 
raw. Uncooked meat is, as a rule, not only displeasing, 
but may be actually unwholesome. 

The various methods of cooking are boiling, stewing, 
steaming, roasting, broiling, panning, sauteing, frying, bak¬ 
ing, and braizing. 

Of these, the three main processes, roasting, baking 
and boiling, have been known through long ages. Before 

the discovery of fire, however, primitive man lived on 

uncooked fruits, nuts and herbs, and even on raw meat. 
(The word Eskimo, for example, means “raw flesh eaters.”) 

Roasting seems to have been the method of cooking 

first used by the early peoples. The bit of fish or meat 

was fastened on the pointed end of a stake, which was 
planted standingly over the fire. (Here we find the deriva¬ 
tion of our word beefsteak.) For larger roasts, there 
were set up two supports,—tree limbs forked at the top— 
across which a pole was laid. When the meat had been at¬ 
tached to this, and a fire built beneath, the arrangement 
was complete. 

The baking of fish or meat was done by wrapping the 
food in harmless leaves—banana leaves being so-used still 
in Hawaii and Africa—and then placing it in a slow fire. 
Another method, the packing of food in damp clay before 
cooking in hot embers, had features in common with our 
modern oven-baking. Again, pits lined with stones, heated, 
on which were laid the food to be cooked, formed a sort of 
underground oven. 

Cooking by means of boiling water showed that the 
people had gained a greater control over the elements, and 
thus had reached a higher stage of development. Never¬ 
theless primitive woman had no cooking utensils, so she 
chose from a stream a rock well hollowed out or, taking 
a log of wood, she burned out a large cavity by means of 
fire-brands or, again, she made a water-tight basket, or she 
dug a hole in the ground, and lined it with rawhide. Into 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


103 


any one of these, she poured water, and then heated it oy 
dropping in hot stones. This odd method, called ‘'stone- 
boiling,’' is still used in certain parts of Europe when mak¬ 
ing “stone-beer." 

BOILING. 

Boiling is cooking by direct contact with boiling 
water or other liquid. This method is used for large cu!s 
of meat,' or large articles in general, such as ham, corned 
beef, cabbage, etc. 

When meat is to be boiled, it should be placed in a 
sauce pan of boiling water. The utensil needs to be covered, 
so that the water may quickly come to a boil again. It 
should then boil for five minutes in order to coagulate the 
outside of the meat. Thus, most of the juices are sealed 
within. Thenn tnhe meat should be simmered until tender. 
(“Boiled" meat is best when not actually boiled.) Certain 
articles are boiled rapidly during the entire time of cook¬ 
ing. Rice and macaroni are treated in this way for the. 
purpose of keeping the particles separate. Cabbage, cauli¬ 
flower and onions are found to be of milder flavor if the 
water is kept boiling. The probable reason is that the 
intense heat drives off much of the volatile oil to which 
their flavor and odor are due. 

In boiling meat, salt should be added when the cook¬ 
ing is about half finished. If added before it toughens the 
meat. Most vegetables are salted when put on to cook. 
Certain foods—onions in particular—lose much flavor if not 
salted at the beginning. No salt should ever be added co 
the water for cooking beets, else their coloring matter is 
drawn out. 

Most articles are boiled in a covered utensil, because 
less heat and flavor escape than from an open vessel. The 
lid is left off cabbage, and similar articles, so that their 
sfrong odor may pass away quickly. Also, such vegetables, 
when cooked uncovered, have a whiter color, and milder 
flavor. Spinach, peas and other green vegetables seem to 
retain their color better if cooked without a lid. 

Even when articles are carefuly boiled, some of their 
juice escapes into the water. This is nearly always fit io 
use in soups or sauces, and should be saved for such pur¬ 
poses. 


104 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


STEWING. 

Stewing is cooking in boiling water or other liquid, 
and is applied to .small articles in general. Large cuts of 
meat are divided into pieces convenient for serving. 

In stewing either meat, fruit, or vegetables, a small 
amount of liquid is used. It varies from one-fourth to 
one-half the bulk of the food. The smaller amount is used 
with naturally watery foods or those which cook quickly, 
and the larger amount with dry foods, or those needing 
considerable time for cooking. 

In this method, as in boiling, the water or other liquid 
is brought to boiling point at first, and after five minutes 
the heat is lessened, so that the food may cook slowly. 
By this means, the fibres of meat are softened, and the 
coarser, tougher portions may be made tender and palatable. 

Since there is only a small amount of liquid on stewed 
articles, it is served as a sauce with the article. Generally, 
flour, cornstarch, or yolk of egg are added to thicken the 
sauce. For stewed fruits, which have been cooked with 
sugar, the liquid is in most cases boiled rapidly for a few 
moments after removing the fruit, in order to form a 
slightly thick syrup. 

Pot pie is merely a meat stew to which pie crust or 
biscuit dough is added. 

STEAMING. 

Steaming is cooking by heat of steam in a closed uten¬ 
sil called a steamer. Boiling water is poured into the bot¬ 
tom of the vessel, and kept at boiling point during the en¬ 
tire cooking. Above the water are perforated shelves. On 
these the food is placed. Several kinds may be cooked at 
once. The heat of the steam which passes through the 
holes in the shelves, reaches all parts of the utensil, and 
causes a slow, gentle cooking. By this means, tough meat 
becomes tender. However, meat can not brown in a steam¬ 
er, nor does it have the rich flavor of roasted meat. 

Delicate puddings, and vegetables which lose flavor 
when boiled in water, are best cooked in a steamer. 

This method is economical of top stove space, as in 
entire meal may be cooked in the steamer. Also, with a 
gas, gasoline or kerosene stove, fuel is saved, because only 
one burner needs to be used. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


105 


A variation upon steaming is the use of the double 
boiler. J his consists of two boilers, one fitting into the 
other. Boiling water is poured into the lower boiler. In 
the upper boiler is placed the article to be cooked. Boiling 
water or other liquid needs to be added to the food. Hence, 
it is cooked by the heat of this liquid. But the boiling 
water in the lower utensil really provides the heat. It 
should always be kept about one-third full of water, or with 
enough that the bottom of the inside boiler touches the 
water. When cooking any food that requires much time, 
it may be necessary to add more water occasionally to that 
in the lower boiler. It must never be let cook dry, as in¬ 
tense heat ruins the utensil, and also allows the food in 
the upper boiler to scorch. 

For the sake of economy, it is well to use a double 
boiler for any cereals needing long cooking. The food 
cooks evenly, and none remains sticking to the boiler. 
When cereals are put in an ordinary saucepan directly over 
the fire, there is always some waste, a more or less thick 
layer of the food clinging to the bottom of the saucepan. 
Thus there is a waste of money, and of time and strength 
in cleaning the utensil. 

The double boiler is especially useful for heating milk, 
and f6r making delicate puddings containing eggs. The 
preparation of food in a fireless cooker is in a way similar 
to steaming. The cooker, a box-like arrangement, holds 
utensils in which foods are placed. About the utensils A 
packed closely some material through which heat can not 
readily escape. The food to be cooked is first placed on 
the stove, and heated, usually being boiled for a short time. 
It is then transferred to the fireless cooker, whose lid 
should at once be securely fastened. Thus the food retains 
its heat for hours, and cooks gradually. It always needs 
a much longer time for cooking than when put on the 
stove in the usual way. A small ham may be boiled for 
a half-hour during the late afternoon, and then be placed 
in the cooker, from which it may be taken, sufficiently 
done, the following morning. The fireless cooker not only 
saves fuel, but is especially convenient for use in summer, 
when one does not wish heat in the kitchen. 


106 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

ROASTING. 

Roasting is cooking by heat radiated directly from a 
fire. This method, when used out-of-doors, for cooking an 
entire animal takes the name of bar.becue. 

For household roasting there is needed a large utensil 
sometimes called a tin-kitchen, or a Dutch oven. This 
contains metal rods, on which meat is hung, and placed 
before an open fire. The meat needs to be basted and 
turned occasionally during the cooking. Sometimes the 
turning is done by machinery. In olden times, when meat 
was commonly cooked in this way in the huge open fire¬ 
places, the dog of the household was often trained to turn 
the spit, or rod, holding the meat. 

Although roasting gives meat a finer flavor than any 
other method of cooking, a true roast is seldom seen nowa¬ 
days. We do not have, as a rule,-a suitable kind of fire, 
the tin kitchen is a large utensil, taking up much space 
in the kitchen and difficult to clean, and the meat, in cook¬ 
ing requires much attention. At present, we generally 
apply the term roasted meat to that which has been baked 
in the oven. 

POT ROASTING. 

This name is commonly given to an old-fashioned way 
of cooking meat in a cast iron pot placed on top of the 
stove. The pot needs to be made very hot, then the meat— 
generally a thick, lean cut—is put in, and turned several 
times until brown on all sides. A small amount of boiling 
water is poured around the meat, which is then allowed to 
cook very slowly until tender. By this method, the meat 
has the well-browned appearance of a roast—hence its 
name. 

broiling. 

Broiling and roasting are in reality the same method 
of cooking. But broiling, or grilling, is the term used 
when preparing small cuts of meat, fish, poultry, or small 
articles in general. Broiling may be done on any cook stove. 
There is needed a good body of fire, burning brightly. 
The fire must be almost to the top of the fire-box. The 
oven damper should be set so that smoke and odors may 
pass directly up the chimney. The meat or other article to 
be cooked is placed on a double broiler, after the bars have 



A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


107 


been greased with a piece of fat from the meat, or with fat 
pork. It is then held directly over the open fire, and turned 
every two minutes until brown, and cooked as much as 
desired. A beefsteak from 1 1-2 to 2 inches thick will cook 
rare in about 10 to 12 minutes. Mutton and lamb chops 
require 6 to 8 minutes. 

In case the fat drips from the meat while cooking, 
and catches fire, the broiler should not be lifted, as the 
flame does not harm the meat, while smoke would blacken 
it. 

Seasoning should be added when the cooking is fin¬ 
ished. 

Broiled meat should be served as quickly as possibV 
after cooking, in order that its fine flavor may not escape. 

Tender cuts of meat are the only ones suitable for 
broiling. 

PANNING. 

Panning is cooking by direct contact with a hot pan. 
Other names given to it are dry panning or pan broiling. 

This method may be used when it is not convenient 
to open the top of the stove for broiling. It is seldom ap¬ 
plied to articles other than steak, chops, ham, bacon, or 
oysters. 

A sheet iron pan is heated until smoking, or “blue” 
hot, when the meat is put in and let cook until it will loosen 
easily from the pan. It then needs to be turned, and the 
turning should be continued every two minutes until the 
meat is done. 

Foods cooked in this way have almost as fine a flavor 
as when broiled. Panned beefsteak is much more whole- 
some than “fried” steak. 

Very lean or tough meat can not be cooked satisfactor¬ 
ily by panning. 

SAUTEING. 

Sauteing, or wet panning is cooking in a small quantity 
of grease. (This method is commonly, but incorrectly, _ 
called “frying.”) 

The grease should be put into a pan, using only 
enough ‘-that when melted will cover the bottom of the 
pan. The grease needs to be heated until smoking, then the 
food is laid in, and let cook until brown on one side, when 


io8 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


it is turned so that the other side browns. Articles should 
never be turned more than once, as frequent turning causes 
them to become grease-soaked. 

This method of cooking, even when carefully done, is 
not very wholesome. Because of the intense heat, the fat 
sometimes causes indigestion or heartburn. 

FRYING. 

Frying is cooking in fat deep enough to entirely cover 
the food. 

From the viewpoint of hygiene, the least objectionable 
fat for frying is vegetable oil. If olive oil seems too ex¬ 
pensive, the cheaper cottonseed or peanut oil will give re¬ 
sults fairly pleasing in color and flavor. There are on the 
market satisfactory mixtures of cottonseed oil and beef 
suet. 

When animal fat is used solely, one-third beef suet 
and two-thirds lard forms a mixture which answers well. 
In case lard alone is chosen, care should be taken to have 
it of good quality. Poor lard is unwholesome and has 
an unpleasant odor and flavor which are still further de¬ 
veloped by heating. 

Most articles, before being fried, are dipped into batter, 
or into egg and then coated with bread crumbs. The albu¬ 
men of egg, being coagulated by the heat of frying, pre¬ 
vents the grease from soaking into the article. When the 
article itself is any soft mixture, the egg keeps the mixture 
from cooking out into the fat. 

The grease for frying should not be boiling hot, as 
often directed. It sometimes happens that bubbles appear, 
and the grease then seems to be boiling. But these bubbles 
show that the fat contains water. (Lard may hold as much 
as thirty per cent of water.) Since water lowers the tem¬ 
perature of the grease, it is not ready for frying until the 
bubbles cook out, and the surface becomes quiet. Usually 
the fat should be so hot that it begins to smoke. The tem¬ 
perature may be tested by dropping in a bit of bread. If 
it browns almost at once—in about 40 seconds—the fat ’s 
hot enough for frying oysters or other foods needing quick 
cooking, For batters and most articles requiring slovV 
cooking, the grease should be hot enough to brown a piece 
of bread in one minute. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. IOQ 

A wire basket with side handle is the most convenient 
utensil for holding articles to be fried. In case this is not 
at hand, a flat, spoon-shaped wire egg beater, or a large, 
long handled meat fork may be used to hold the articles 
while frying. Those which float—such as doughnuts— 
while not needing support, will require turning. 

As soon as done, each article should be placed on soft 
paper to drain free of grease. 

When the frying is finished, the fat should be taken 
from the stove at once, and strained through cheesecloth 
or a gauze-wire sieve. When cared for in this way, it may 
be used many times. 

BAKING. 

Baking is cooking by heat radiated from an oven. 

A slow oven has a temperature of 270° to 350 0 F., 
a moderate oven 350° to 400°, a quick oven 400° to 480° F. 

The heat of the oven may be tested rn several ways. 
One may use a thermometer, but these are not always 
accurate. Some makes of ranges have a thermometer set 
in the oven door. 

The heat may be tested with white paper. If a piece 
laid on the rack turns a pale yellow in 5 minutes, the oven 
is ready for any foods that need slow cooking, such as 
angel cake, or sponge cake. Should the paper color a 
deep yellow, or quite pale brown in 5 minutes, the oven is. 
hot enough for bread, and other articles requiring medium 
heat. If the paper becomes a deep brown in 5 minutes, 
the heat is great enough for meat, biscuit and other foods 
needing either intense heat at first, or quick cooking. 

The oven heat may also be tested by scattering flour 
over the bottom of the oven, judging by the color, as with 
paper. This method is more trouble, and less cleanly than 
the paper test. 

One may judge of ordinary heat by holding the hand 
in the oven until one counts twenty slowly. If the air 
feels so hot that by the end of the counting the hand must 
be withdrawn, the oven is about right for bread and other 
ordinary cooking. 

For baking meat, the oven should be very hot—about 
400° F.—for 15 minutes after the meat is put in. 
(This is for the purpose of coagulating the outside of the 


no 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


meat, so that the juice can not escape.) Then the oven 
should be cooled somewhat, thus letting the meat cook 
rather slowly until tender. 

It is best to bake or “roast” meat without any water 
in the pan, whenever possible. This may be done with 
quite fat meat. If the meat is lean and dry, suet should 
be cut into bits, and scattered over the top. 

Meat should be basted every 15 minutes. (Basting 
consists in dipping up from the pan portions of the melted 
fat, and pouring over the meat.) This helps the meat t d 
brown, but keeps the outer part tender and prevents the 
escape of juices. 

To bake beef rare requires 15 minutes to each pound 
and 15 minutes over. This extra fifteen minutes is allowed 
as the time needed for the meat to heat through and begin 
cooking. Thus, a 4-lb. roast of beef should be given 1 1-4 
hours for cooking. Well-done beef needs 20 minutes to 
each pound. For mutton, well-done 15 minutes are given 
for each pound. Veal, which should always be well done, 
needs 25 minutes to the pound. Any large, thick roast of 
pork requires 30 minutes for each pound. A thin cut of 
pork, such as spare-rib, may cook well-done with 20 minutes 
for each pound. Chicken, of about three pounds weight, 
should be given a total time of about 1 1-2 hours. A ten- 
pound turkey will cook in about 3 hours. 

Seasoning should be added to baked meat when it is 
half-done. 

When baking bread, the oven should be kept hot at 
first for about 15 minutes, or until the bread begins to 
brown slightly. Then the oven should be cooled, so that 
the bread may bake slowly. If the oven were kept very 
hot during the entire time, the outer part of the loaf 
would be too brown before the centre were cooked. It Is 
necessary to have bread thoroughly baked, in order to 
cook the starch, and to destroy the life of the yeast. 
(Slack-baked bread often causes indigestion; and if such 
bread be kept for several days, it is likely to grow sour 
or mouldy.) 

The time given for baking bread, a single loaf to a 
pan about 4x9 inches in size, is 45 minutes. When larger 
pans must be used, 15 minutes extra time is allowed for 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


Ill 


each additional loaf. Thus, two loaves to a pan would 
need 60 minutes for baking, while three loaves in one pan 
should have 75 minutes. (1 1-4 hours.) 

Articles raised with yeast, baking powder, or similar 
mixtures should be placed on the bottom of the oven, so 
that the under heat may cause them to “puff up” or 
become light. Meat is generally set on a rack near the 
bottom of the oven. 

Articles which require browning on top, but very 
little cooking throughout should be placed on a rack near 
the top of the oven. Custards and other delicate foods 
containing eggs need to be set in a pan, and to have a 
little hot water poured around them. The water keeps 
them from cooking too much in the bottom, before the 
rest of the mixture is done. Such foods are usually set 
on the middle rack of the oven. 

BRAIZING. 

Braizing, as a method of cooking, has some features 
from several other methods. The utensil used is called a 
braizing pan. In the bottom of this are placed sever.il 
kinds of vegetables, and some boiling water. The meat 
to be cooked is laid on the vegetables. Over all a tight- 
fitting cover is placed. The pan then being set in the 
oven allows the meat to cook partly by direct contact with 
the water, in part by steam, and also by heat from the 
top of the pan. 

This method is used, as a rule, only for large cuts 
of meat. 

A covered earthen dish, called a casserole, is much 
used abroad, and sometimes in our country, for cooking 
small articles in a way similar to braizing. 

Readings: Home Life in All Lands (Morris), pp. 
188-231; Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture (Mason), 
pp. 30-40, 90-113, 144-145- 

care OF FOOD. 

Food supplies should be protected from impure air, 
dust and dampness. As a rule, they also need to be kept 
cool. The heated air of the kitchen soon injures various 
articles. It is very important that food be protected against 
flies, as they are carriers of many diseases, typhoid, per¬ 
haps, in particular. 


112 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


For the storing - of dry groceries, bought in sma.l 
amounts, such as rice, raisins, etc., glass jars or wide- 
mouthed bottles are best. These may be kept air-tight, 
they are not difficult to clean, and they allow the contents 
to be easily seen. 

As certain volatile oils give the chief flavor to pepper 
and other spices, such articles should not be left in paper 
packets after opening. It is well to have at hand a supply 
of small bottles into which the spices may be emptied. Many 
of the higher grades of spices come in tin boxes, which, 
being air-tight, are quite satisafctory. Since but few of 
such articles are in frequent use, it is best to buy them only 
in small quantities. Even with care they lose their strength 
in time, besides being occasionally attacked by insects. 

Extracts lose flavor readily if left open. They should 
be uncorked only as needed and closed again at once. Since 
corks have a habit of breaking, it is well to wash and save 
any good ones when casting away bottles. Also, a small 
collection of well-cleaned empty bottles in various sizes 
often proves a convenience. 

Baking powder, cream of tartar and bicarbonate of 
soda need to be kept air-tight. 

Flour may be stored in a tin flour bin, a firkin or a 
barrel. It needs a dry, moderately warm place. In case 
large quantities are used, so that the flour is bought by 
the barrel, it is often well to raise the barrel a few inches 
off the floor by setting it on cleats. This prevents damp¬ 
ness from striking into the barrel underneath. 

Cornmeal spoils more quickly than most other cereals. 
It should be kept cool and as dry as possible. In the 
early fall, when the new grinding of cornmeal is placed 
on the market, it is well to buy it in only small amounts. 
Later, when the meal has become well dried, larger quan¬ 
tities may be stored with less danger of its spoiling. 

As weevils readily attack cornstarch, it should be keot 
in a closely covered jar. 

Crackers and similar foods which are desired crisp 
need to be stored in a dry and moderately warm place. 
They must be kept air-tight. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 113 

Bread, loaf cakes, and other like foods which are pre¬ 
ferred moist should be stored in tin boxes. However, 
stone crocks prove better when such preparations are to be 
kept for a lengthy time. In certain cases, it may be well 
to follow the confectioner’s method, and place a wet sponge 
(set in a jar or tumbler) in the crock with the bread or 
cake. This prevents drying. 

For sugar there should be large covered crocks m 
wooden firkins. Sugar, salt and other articles likely to 
absorb moisture should never be stored in tin receptacles. 

All fatty and oily foods should be kept cool. In time, 
if exposed to heat, they turn rancid. Butter is very quickly 
affected in this way. Most fats absorb odors readily. 
Hence butter, cream and olive oil, whose natural flavor is 
delicate and easily spoiled, should be kept away from arti¬ 
cles having a strong odor, such as onions, cabbage, melons, 
etc. It is well to put butter in a covered crock. Olive 
oil needs to be well corked, and to be set in a place that 
is both dark and cool. Families using much olive oil wnl 
find it an economy to buy the oil in tin cans rather than 
in bottles. The tin is of advantage also, in preventing 
access of light. Nuts need to be kept dry as well as cool. 

Nearly all fresh fruits keep best and are thought t) 
have their finest flavor when chilled. Bananas, however, 
if intended for serving whole, should be kept in a cool place, 
but not in the refrigerator. It is found that after being in 
a refrigerator their skins soon turn dark on exposure to 
the warmer outside air. Cantaloupes need to have the 
rind well scrubbed and wiped dry. They should be laid at 
the lowest part of the refrigerator, when in a few hours, 
they will become sufficiently cold. Thus treated, they are 
of a finer flavor than if chilled by lumps of ice placed in 
them. 

Dried currants, although usually called “ready-cleaned,” 
are seldom above suspicion. If they taste in the least sandy, 
it is well to wash them through several waters, each time 
lifting them from the soiled water to the fresh. In case 
the water is merely drained off, it proves difficult to free 
them from sand. When clean, they should be spread our 
on a large platter, and dried slowly in a warming oven 
or a very" cool baking oven. They may be placed in a glass 


114 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

jar, and are ready for use at any time. This is a better 

plan than to wait until the fruit is needed, and then wasn 

it. In the latter case the fruit will be damp and heavy 

and will probably sink to the bottom of most mixtures to 

which it may be added. 

One should select a cool, dark and dry place for the 
storing of canned fruits and vegetables. 

Food materials containing much proteid, especially 
when in a moist state, are likely to spoil quickly. Hence 
milk, eggs, fish, poultry and meat need especial care if 
they are to remain in good condition. 

Cooked food of any kind should be cooled before it 
is placed in the refrigerator. If set in while warm, it melts 
the ice, gathers moisture on the outside, and absorbs odors 
from other foods. It may also cause the spoiling of foods 
placed near it. Particular care must be taken when putting 
away meat that has been cooked in water. It is thougnt 
that boiled ham, corned beef and smoked tongue are more 
moist, and have better flavor if cooled in the water in which 
they were cooked. This method may be used during cold 
weather. It is a decided risk in warm weather, even though 
such meats contain considerable salt, which acts as a pre¬ 
servative. Fresh meats are almost certain to spoil under 
such treatment. They should be taken from the liquid as 
soon as cooked. Then it is wise to let both the meat and 
the liquid be uncovered, so that they may cool quickly. 
When the liquid is intended for making soup, the vege¬ 
tables used for flavoring or garnishing should be added as 
late as possible. After vegetables have been cooked in 
soup stock, it turns sour quickly, especially in warm 
weather. 

All receptacles for foods should be kept clean. Brea I 
and cake boxes in particular need frequent scalding, after 
which it is well to dry them thoroughly in the sun. Stale 
or moldy bits of bread or cake should never be allowed to 
collect. Stale bread may be used in scalloped dishes, rs 
a stuffing for meats, in griddle cakes, etc. 

Neat housekeeping requires that food supplies be taken 
out of paper sacks as soon as received, because the bags 
tear easily, and cause the pantry to have an untidy appear¬ 
ance. Any bags that are clean should be folded and laid 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 115 

away for various uses. Heavy ones may be slipped over 
the hand and used in rubbing grease and dust from the top 
of the stove, with or without blacking. They may be placed 
over jars of canned fruit from which one wishes to exclude 
the light. Stiff pasteboard boxes that held crackers may 
be flattened out, and the sections used for scraping greasy 
dishes. 

If small portions of food are left over from a meal, 
instead of wasting them, or serving them again in the same 
way, one should try to make some different dish from 
them. This affords both economy and variety to the diet. 
By paying attention to such small matters, the French have 
become noted as both good and economical cooks. For¬ 
eigners say that Americans in general spend more on then- 
tables, and have less to show for the outlay than any 
other nation. Let us hope that a knowledge of domestic 
science will finally correct this fault. 

A FEW GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 

STALE BREAD. BREAD CRUMBS. 

The economical housekeeper takes care daily of anv 
remains of bread. Entire slices may be used for toasi ;r 
croutons, while the uses of crumbs are numerous. 

There is a difference between stale and dried bread 
crumbs. 

Stale bread crumbs are obtained from bread about two 
days old. If only the center is desired, this may be torn out 
with a fork, and then crumbled by -t light rubbing between 
the hands. Stale bread crumbs should be left in loose 
flakes—not powdered fine. In case the crust is only lightly 
browned so that it does to use as well as the centre, the 
crumbs may be made by rubbing the entire loaf over a 
coarse grater. It is best to prepare stale bread crumbs 
just before needed for use. Being somewhat moist, they 
soon grow moldy if stored away. 

Stale bread crumbs are used mainly for the stuffing of 
poultry, veal or fish; for omelets, griddle cakes, scalloped 
dishes: also, in bread pudding and suet pudding. 

When only the center of a loaf has been used for 
stale crumbs, the crust may be saved for making dried 
crumbs. Should any part of the crust have been baked 


Il6 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

very dark, this needs to be trimmed off. The parts fit for 
use are to be put in a pan which is then set into the warm¬ 
ing oven until the bread grows dry and crisp, or, the drying 
may be done in the baking oven, at a time when the fire is 
low. The oven door would best be left open, as the bread 
should dry without browning. 

After the pieces are crisp they may be spread on a 
board, crushed with a rolling pin, and sifted afterward. 
A quicker and more convenient method is to put the bits 
of bread through a meat grinder. Thus the crumbs are 
of an even size, and do not need sifting. When entirely 
cool if put into a jar, and closely covered, they will keep 
well for several weeks. 

Dried bread crumbs are used mostly for coating arti¬ 
cles that need to be dipped in egg and crumbs. 

For this purpose, bread crumbs have advantages over 
cracker crumbs. The latter do not brown evenly on cro¬ 
quettes or similar articles. Besides, cracker crumbs con¬ 
tain more fat than bread crumbs and are, for this reason,’ 
less wholesome when heated to a high temperature, as in 
frying. 

Stale rolls, biscuit and even entire loaves of bread may 
be freshened by re-heating. Dip each article, separately, 
into cold water. They must be merely moistened, not drip¬ 
ping wet. Place them in a pan, cover with another pan, 
and put into a brisk oven for about io minutes. When 
the crust is hot and dry they are ready to use. 

CARAMEL. 

Put i cup granulated sugar into an iron skillet and 
place over a slow fire. Stir occasionally—using a wooden 
spoon—until all of the sugar has melted. It should become 
a pale brown—about the color of table syrup—if intended 
for use as a sauce or for flavoring and sweetening ice 
cream or other desserts. If wished for coloring soups and 
meat sauces, let it cook until it begins to smoke and turns 
a dark brown. The sweetness then disappears. In either 
instance, as soon as it reaches the color desired, pour in 
one cup of boiling water, and let cook one minute. Cool, 
turn into a bottle and cork well. It may be kept a long 
time. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


II7 


CHOCOLATE. 

It is usually a waste of time and strength to either 
grate chocolate or to shave it into bits. If the quantity 
needed be put into a small saucepan or cup, and this placed 
in a pan of warm water on the back of the stove, the choc¬ 
olate will melt very soon, and is then ready for adding to 
any mixture that is to be cooked. This melted chocolate 
will not do for putting into cold dishes unless it is first 
boiled in a little water. 

All half-pound cakes of bitter chocolate are made with 
creases on top which mark off squares of one ounce each. 
A single square when grated makes six level tablespoons 
■ of chocolate. By keeping this proportion in mind, when 
a receipt calls for a certain amount of grated chocolate, 
one may make work easier by cutting off the needed portion 
and melting it. 

TO CLARIFY FAT. 

The trimmings from fresh meat, the drippings from 
roasts, and the skimmings from soup stock should all te 
saved. Cut the pieces of fat into half-inch bits. Put these 
and any other grease to be clarified into a saucepan and 
set over a slow fire until all is melted. Then strain through 
a fine cheesecloth and measure. To every four cups of the 
grease add one and one-half cups of boiling water, and a 
scant quarter of a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda. (The 
soda is used to remove any unpleasant odor or taste, while 
the water aids in this work by driving off impurities m 
steam.) Place the mixture over a moderate fire and boil 
until the water has evaporated. (This is shown by the 
surface becoming still—bubbles no longer appearing.) 
Strain through a double thickness of cheesecloth, and set 
away to cool. 

CROUTONS. 

Slice stale bread into pieces one-half inch thick. Butter 
lightly, then cut into half-inch blocks. Place them, buttered 
side up, on a shallow pan or pie plate and set in a moderate 
oven. Brown lightly. Serve with soup. 

CUSTARDS. 

In making a soft custard sauce, or any similar dish 
thickened with eggs, if it should be cooked a moment too 
long, so that there are signs of curdling, the mixture 


11 8 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

should be turned out at once into some cold utensil. If 
then beaten briskly with an egg beater for a short time, it 
will generally become smooth. 

EGGS. 

In separating the yolk from the white of an egg, espe¬ 
cial care is needed that none of the yolk mixes with the 
white. A little white does no harm to the yolk, but even 
a small speck of yolk will prevent the white from becoming 
light when beaten. 

When several eggs are to be used in any recipe, each 
one should be broken over a separate dish, and examined 
before being added to the others. 

TO SCALE AND CLEAN FISH. 

Hold the fish by the tail, and with a small sharp knife 
scrape from the tail to the head, being particularly careful 
to remove scales near the fins. Even when the fish has been 
scaled by the dealer, this point needs attention. If the 
head is to be removed, cut it off back of the fin that is 
near the gills. Then begin at the head, split the fish half¬ 
way along the lower part of the body. Remove the entrails, 
being careful not to break the gall sac, and scrape all the 
blood from the backbone. When fish are to be broiled, 
whole, they are split along the backbone the entire length 
of the fish. Fish for baking or boiling whole usually have 
the head and tail left on. The fins should be cut off, and 
the tail trimmed in a straight line across. 

TO BONE A FISH. 

Scale and clean the fish. Cut off the head. Lay the 
fish on its side on a board, having the head portion away 
from you, and the backbone toward the right hand. With 
a sharp knife make a cut through the skin the entire length 
of the fish and immediately above the’ dorsal fin. Hold 
the edge of the knife flat, and close to the backbone. Cut 
from the head toward the tail, removing the flesh from the 
upper side in one piece, then turn the fish with the bone 
to the board. Remove the flesh from the other side in 
the same way. If properly done, the backbone and fins 
will remain in one piece, but with scarcely any flesh on 
them. The two long strips of meat are called fillets. If 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. I IQ 

from small fish, these are cooked whole. Large fish are 
divided into smaller portions. Frying is the method of 
cooking usually applied to fillets. 

GREASING PANS, ETC. 

hor greasing pans, a small flat brush or bit of paper 
may be used. Griddles need to be greased evenly, and 
this is best done with a patent greaser, or with a piece of 
fat pork or suet held on a fork. 

Butter should never be used for greasing, as it is too 
expensive. Also, the salt in it causes articles to stick, and 
the casein is likely to burn. 

KNIVES. 

Dull knives waste time and material and destroy the 
cook’s peace of mind. A steel knife sharpener is one of the 
most important utensils about a kitchen. To sharpen a 
knife: Place the edge of the knife against the steel, at an 
angle of thirty degrees. (At a smaller angle, the edge 
scarcely touches the steel. At a larger angle, the edge is 
dulled.) Draw the blade its full length, from heel to tip, 
against the steel, pressing lightly. Then the other side is 
to be treated in the same way. By changing thus, from 
one side to the other, several times, the knife soon becomes 
sharp. 

To slice cake. In cutting any delicate or rather fresh 
cake, avoid holding the knife in the usual horizontal posi¬ 
tion. Instead, place it point downward in the cake, in an 
almost perpendicular position, giving short quick cuts, 
much like a sawing motion. By this means, the slices 
will neither be torn nor crushed. 

ONIONS. 

When needing onion juice it is best to select white¬ 
skinned onions, as they contain more juice than those having- 
red skin. The onion, after peeling, should be cut into 
halves crosswise. If the cut is then pressed, or slightly 
torn," against a coarse grater, the juice flows—slowly, bur 
in general, surely. Onion juice, being milder than grated 
or chopped onion, is best suited to dishes of delicate flavor. 

To Chop Onions. Peel the onion, and place it, root 
side down, on a board. Using a sharp knife, make parallel 
cuts down through the bulb almost to its base. Then, in 
the same manner, make cuts at right angles to these. The 


120 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


entire top surface, and the onion throughout, is thus marked 
off in tiny squares. Now, turn the onion on its side and 
slice across. This method gives pieces as small as one 
wishes, and without the time and trouble needed for chop¬ 
ping in the old style way. 

The odor from onions may be removed from the 
breath by drinking a little strong coffee, or by chewing 
a bit of parsley. 

PARSLEY. 

To Chop Parsley. Wash the parsley, and dry by pat¬ 
ting it in a towel. Arrange the leaves together, and twist 
them into a compact bunch. Hold this tight between the 
thumb and two fingers of the left hand, letting the end of 
the bunch reach just to the tips of the fingers. By placing 
the parsley against a board, and resting the flat part of a 
knife blade against the ends of the fingers, the parsley may 
be sliced fine enough to need no chopping afterward. 

Parsley loses both flavor and color by long cooking. 
When to be used finely chopped, as a garnish for soups, 
or similar dishes, it should be added only a moment before 
taking'the article from the fire. 

WAYS OF COMBINING INGREDIENTS 

There are three ways of combining ingredients: Stir¬ 
ring, beating and folding. Those which are to be blended 
by stirring are usually placed in a bowl or saucepan, a 
spoon being used for mixing. Stir around and around, 
in gradually widening circles, occasionally scraping the 
sides and keeping the bowl of the spoon against the bottom 
and sides of the bowl. The stirring should be slow at first 
to avoid spattering. When making a sauce, brisk stirring 
is needed as soon as it begins to boil. This ensures 
smoothness. 

A mixture is beaten to break up its substance, and 
make it smooth or fine-grainend, or to beat in the air and 
make it light. The spoon or the beater should be'lifted 
from the bottom to the top of the mixture at each stroke. 
In this way, some air is entangled in the egg, batter or other 
substance. (Beating should be done rapidly.) 

When two or more articles are to be folded together, 
the lighter material, such as white of egg, is usually placed 
on top. The bowl of the mixing spoon is then sunk to 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


121 


the bottom of the mixture, and a portion of the heavier 
material is lifted up at each stroke, and gently turned over 
the lighter part, thus combining until the blending is com¬ 
plete. This method is employed when one wishes to pre¬ 
vent the escape of air which has previously been beaten 
into the mixture. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

t. stands for teaspoonful. 

T. stands for tablespoonful. 
c. stands for cupful, 
pt. stands for pint, 
qt. stands for quart, 
pk. stands for peck, 
gal. stands for gallon, 
oz. stands for ounce, 
lb. stands for pound, 
min. stands for minute, 
hr. stands for hour. 

TABLE OF MEASURES. 

3 t. equal i T. 

16 level or 8 rounded T. equal I c. 

2 gills equal i c. 

2 c. equal i pt. 

4 c. equal I qt. 

4 qts. equal i gal. 

8 qts. equal I pk. 

2 gal. equal I pk. 

2 T. butter equal i oz. 

2 T. granulated sugar equal i oz. 

4 T. flour equal i oz. 

2 c. butter, packed solid, equal i lb. 

2 c. granulated sugar equal i lb. 

2 1-3 c. pulverized sugar equal 1 lb. 

2 c. finely chopped meat, packed solid, equal 1 lb. 
4 c. flour equal 1 lb. 

9 or 10 eggs equal 1 lb. 

4 c. pulverized coffee equal 1 lb. 

RULES FOR MEASURING. 

Ill this book, all measurements, whether made by tea¬ 
spoon, tablespoon or cup, are level. 


122 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Articles, such as salt, pulverized sugar, etc., which 
readily form into lumps, should be rolled or sifted before 
measuring. 

The - standard measuring cup holds a half-pint, dry 
measure. # v 

A cupful is measured up to the brim (without shaking 
or packing down) and stroked off level. Ihe cup should 
not be dipped into the material. Both exactness in meas¬ 
uring and neatness require that a scoop or spoon be used 
in filling the cup. 

To obtain a spoonful, fill the spoon by dipping it into 
the article needed. Then hold a case-knife with the blade 
perpendicular and level off the article even with the edge 
of the spoon. (Never place the blade of the knife flat on 
top of the material in the spoon. This packs the particles 
and makes too large a measurement.) 

A spoonful of butter melted is measured before melt¬ 
ing. A spoonful of melted butter is measured after melting. 

To obtain half of a spoonful, divide the entire spoon¬ 
ful through the center lengthwise. 

A quarter of a spoonful is measured by dividing the 
half spoonful in two parts crosswise. 

To secure good results in cooking, all measurements 
and weights must be exact. 

Before beginning any cooking, fix the fire in the 
proper order, and do not forget that it may need further 
attention later. 

Collect utensils, and measure ingredients. 

Be careful not to waste material bv scattering flour, 
sugar, etc., on the table or the floor. Nor is there need 
of sprinkling flour over yourself, so that you look like 
“a dusty miller.” 

Do not let eggshells, potato parings, or other refuse 
gather as you work. Collect soiled dishes as soon as possi¬ 
ble and wash them at the earliest spare moment. 

When cooking, keep yourself as neat as at other times, 
or even neater. Many persons, while preparing meals, cr 
doing, other kitchen work wear a dark colored apron, 
because it “does not show dirt.” It is better to wear an 
apron of very pale color, or white (plainly made) because 
it DOES show dirt. One thus learns to work neatly. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


123 


Cooking, when properly done, is clean work. Always have 
at hand a holder or old tow T el for opening the oven door, 
or for lifting utensils about the stove. Never use the corner 
of your apron for such purposes. Nor should the hands 
ever be wiped on the apron. Before beginning to cool-:, 
wash the hands well with soap and hot water, and then 
KEEP them clean. Never apply grease to cake pans with 
the fingers. Do not use the finger for cleaning out batter 
from a mixing bowl. A spoon or a thin bladed knife 
answers this purpose well. When blending materials in a 
bowl, be careful not to spatter them up to the rim. There 
should be a clean edge by which to hold the bowl. There 
is no need for making the handles of knives and spoons 
sticky while working. 

Whenever you find a recipe to your liking, always 
follow it exactly, and there will be no need for tasting it 
during the cooking to know whether it is ‘Tight.” Do not 
form the habit of eating the bit that clings to the spoon 
when turning out articles for serving. Frequent nibbling 
harms the complexion and the digestive tract. When it E 
really necessary to taste an article, use a clean fork or 
spoon, and do not dip it into the food a second time. Such 
a method not only looks unpleasant, but may do positive 
harm. 

CEREALS. 

OATMEAL MUSH. 

1- 2 c. oatmeal’ 2 c. boiling water. 

1-2 t. salt. 

Pick over the oatmeal. Put into a double boiler. Add 
the salt and boiling water. Stir until mixed, then cook 
1 1-2 hours without stirring. Be careful that the lower 
boiler contains sufficient water during the entire time. Tf 
rolled oats are used, take only 1 c. boiling water. 

CORNMEAL MUSH. 

' Use the same proportions as for oatmeal mush and 
cook similarly. It has a better flavor when cooked in an 
ordinary cast iron boiler, but some of the mush is wasted 
by sticking to the bottom. 

GRANULATED HOMINY. 

2- 3 c. granulated hominy. 

1-2 t. salt. 


2 c. milk. 


124 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

t 

Soak the hominy in i 1-2 c. cold water over night. 
When ready to cook, drain off any surplus water. Put 
the ingredients into a double boiler and cook 1 hour. 

BOILED RICE. 

1 qt. boiling water. 1-2 c. rice. 

1-2 t. salt. 

Pick over the rice. Wash it thoroughly and drain. 
Put the boiling water and salt into a saucepan. Sprinkle 
in the rice and stir over a brisk fire until the water again 
comes to a boil. Let the rice cook rapidly until tender. 
Drain. Stand the saucepan on the back part of the stove 
and cover with a towel. Let the rice steam thus for 10 
minutes, when every grain should be distinct. If the rice 
be desired softer, like mush, add to it 1 c. hot milk imme¬ 
diately after draining off the water, and simmer for 5 
minutes. 

CREAM OF WHEAT. 

1-2 c. cream of wheat. 2 c. boiling water. 

1-2 t. salt. 

Put the boiling water into a saucepan and set it over 
the fire. When the water begins to boil, sprinkle in the 
cream of wheat, slowly, stirring constantly. Add the salt. 
Then set the saucepan where the cereal can simmer for 
10 minutes. 

Cream of wheat may be made in a double boiler, but 
needs 20 minutes cooking. 

"TOAST. 

DRY TOAST. 

Select bread two days old. Cut into slices 1-3 inch 
thick. Hold them over a clear, hot fire, turning occasion¬ 
ally until a pale brown. Spread lightly with butter and 
serve at once. 

MILK TOAST. 

4 medium-sized slices of dry toast. 1 1-2 T. butter. 

1 c. milk. 1-2 t. salt. 

Put the milk into a shallow saucepan to scald. Then 
add the butter and salt. When the butter is melted, put in 
the toast and let each slice become soft but not broken. 
Place in a heated dish. If any milk remains in the pan 
pour it over the toast. Put a lid on the dish and serve hot. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


I2 5 


WATER TOAST. 

Water toast is made in the same way as Milk Toast, 
using boiling water in place of milk. 

FRUIT TOAST. 

4 small slices dry toast, buttered. 

4 T. sugar. 1-2 c. fruit cut small. 

3 t. cornstarch. 1-2 c. fruit juice. 

After making the toast keep it warm while preparing 
the fruit. Bring the juice to a boil; add the sugar and 
corntsarch, which have been well mixed, and stir until 
boiled and clear. Add the fruit, and as soon as it is steam¬ 
ing hot, pour it out on the toast, which has been buttered 
just before using. 

GERMAN TOAST. 

8 small slices bread. 1 egg. 

1 c. milk. 1-2 t. salt. 

Beat the egg, add to it the milk and salt, pour the 
mixture out on a platter, and soak the bread in it, turning 
occasionally until the liquid is entirely absorbed. Then 
brown on both sides on a greased griddle. When done, 
the toast may be sprinkled with sugar, if desired. 

POTATOES. 

BAKED POTATOES. 

Select potatoes of uniform and medium size. Scrub 
them thoroughly and wipe dry. Place them in a baking 
pan, and put into a hot oven until tender, from 30 to 40 
minutes. Serve at once. 

BOILED POTATOES. 

Choose potatoes of the same size. Scrub them, and 
put them into a saucepan. Pour on enough boiling water 
to come to 1 inch above the top of the potatoes. Bring to 
a boil, then simmer until they may be easily pierced with 
a fork. Drain. Shake gently over the fire for a few 
moments to dry them. Take off a half-inch strip of skin 
around the center of each potato, or they may be entirely 
peeled. Serve hot. 

Should the potatoes be intended for warmed over 
dishes alone, it is easier to remove the skins after they are 
cold. While still hot, however, the skin should be broken 
to allow the steam to escape. 


126 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


If they are to be boiled without their skins, scrub them, 
scrape or pare them thin, being - careful to take out all the 
eves. Then cook them as directed above. 


MASHED POTATOES. 


Cook the potatoes without their skins. When done 
drain thoroughly, and shake over the fire until dry and 
mealy. Mash them very smooth with a potato beetle, beat 
them with a fork until light; or put through a ricer. Meas¬ 
ure and to 2 c. allow i 1-2 T. butter, from 1-4 to 1-2 c. 
cream or milk, 3-4 t. of salt, 1-2 t. of pepper. Heat the 
milk, add it to the potato slowly, beating constantly. Stir 
in the salt. Turn the potato into a heated dish. Make 
indentions over the top with the back of a tablespoon. Into 
each of these drop a bit of butter. Sprinkle the pepper 
lightly over the top and place them in the oven a moment 
until the butter melts. 


CREAMED POTATOES. 

2 c. potatoes, cut into 1-2 in. blocks. 


1 c. milk. 

1-2 t. salt. 

1-12 t. pepper. 


2 T. butter. 
2 T flour. 


Cover the potatoes with boiling water and simmer until 
tender. Meanwhile put the butter and flour into a sauce¬ 
pan and stir over the fire until smooth. Add the milk, stir 
until it boils and thickens. Add the seasoning. When the 
potatoes are cooked, drain them, stir them into the sauce, 
reheat, and serve at once. 

LYONNAISE POTATOES. 

i c. cold boiled potatoes, cut into 1-2 inch blocks. 

1 1-2 T. drippings or butter. 1 T. chopped onion. 

1 T. chopped parsley. 1-4 t. salt. 


1-16 t. pepper. 


Cook the onion in the fat until a pale brown. Mix 
the salt with the potatoes, then turn them into the pan and 
stir until hot. They should not brown. Sprinkle the pars¬ 
ley over, heat for a moment, dust with pepper and they are 
ready to serve. 

1 c. potatoes. 

1 c. milk. 

2 T. butter. 


SCALLOPED POTATOES. 


i T. flour. 

3-4 t. salt. 

3 dashes pepper. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


1-27 


4 T. stale bread crumbs, moistened with 1 T. melted butter. 

Pare the potatoes, and slice them very thin. Put the 
butter and flour into a saucepan, stir over the fire until 
smooth, pour in the milk, and stir constantly until boiling, 
then add the salt and pepper. Place a layer of the sauce 
in the bottom of a baking dish, then a layer of potatoes, 
and so continue until*all are used, having the last layer oir 
sauce. Sprinkle the bread crumbs over the top and bake 
in a moderately quick oven until the potatoes are tender 
and the top browned. Keep the baking dish covered for 
the first 15 minutes of cooking. 

HASHED BROWNED POTATOES. 

2 ,c. cold boiled potatoes. 1 t. salt. 

3 T. drippings or other fat. 1-6 t. pepper. 

Chop the potatoes very fine and mix with them the 
salt and pepper. Put the fat in a skillet and set on the 
stove until smoking hot, then turn in the potatoes and pack 
them down well. They should be not more than a half¬ 
inch in depth. Move the pan to a part of the stove where 
the cooking will be rather slow. Do not stir the potatoes 
at any time. In order to decide whether they are browning, 
a thin bladed knife may be inserted carefully about the edge, 
from time to time, and when lightly browned around the 
sides, the bottom will be brown enough. Fold one-haif 
over the other, run a limber bladed knife underneath to 
loosen them well from the skillet. Turn out with care, *0 
that they may keep in shape. 

MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE. 

Break the macaroni into inch pieces. For 1 c. of mac¬ 
aroni put 6 c. of boiling water in a saucepan. Add 1-2 T. 
salt. When the water comes to boiling point, add the 
macaroni, and cook rapidly until tender. This will take 
from 20 to 45 minutes, depending upon the quality and age 
of the macaroni. When done, drain, and to 2 c. of macaroni 
allow 1 c. of tomato sauce. Heat the macaroni in the sauce. 

Tomato Sauce 2 T. butter, 2 T flour, 1 c. strained 
tomato juice, 1-2 t. salt, 1-12 t. pepper. Put the butter 
and flour into a saucepan, and stir over the fire until well 
blended, pour in the tomato juice, and stir until it boils 
and thickens. Add the seasoning. If the tomatoes are 
very sour 1 t. granulated sugar may be added. 


128 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE. 

Cook the macaroni as for Macaroni with Tomato 
Sauce. When tender drain well, and re-heat in a cream 
sauce, using i c. of the sauce to 2 c. of macaroni. 

BAKED MACARONI. 

1-4 lb. macaroni. 1-2 c. cream or milk. 

1-4 lb. grated cheese. 2 T. butter. 

Salt, paprika or cayenne. 

Boil the macaroni as directed in Macaroni with Tomato 
Sauce. Drain. Mix it and the cheese together, adding 
paprika and salt to taste. Put into a small baking dish. 
Cut the butter into bits. Put it over the top. Pour on the 
cream or milk. Bake in a quick oven until brown on top. 

WATERY VEGETABLES. 

BOILED CORN. 

Husk and silk the corn. Drop it into boiling, unsalted 
water. Cover and let the water come quickly to boiling 
point again. Cook 1 minute if the corn is young, and 3 
minutes if old. Take it out, and serve immediately, cov¬ 
ered with a napkin. 

STEWED CORN. 

Cut the corn from the cob. Measure. To 2 c. of 
corn allow 1-2 c. boiling water. Put the corn and water 
into a covered saucepan. Bring quickly to a boil. Cook 3 
minutes. Drain off any water, and to each 2 c. of corn add 
2 T. butter, 4 T. cream or milk, 1-2 t. salt, and 1-12 t. 
pepper. Stir all together over the fire until steaming hot. 
canned corn may be dressed in the same way, care being 
taken to drain off all water before heating. 

FRESH CORN FRITTERS. 

2 c. grated corn. 1 t. salt. 

1-6 t. pepper. 

Mix the ingredients together. If the corn is medium 
ripe the consistency will be correct. Should very young 
corn be used, a small amount of flour may be added, or, if 
the corn is old, a little milk may be stirred in. Put drip¬ 
pings, cottolene, or lard into an iron skillet. Let it get 
smoking hot. Then put in the fritters, a small tablespoon- 
ful at a time. Brown on each side. Serve hot. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


1 29 


CANNED CORN FRITTERS. 

3-4 c. canned corn. 
3-4 T. butter. 

3-4 t. baking powder. 

3-4 t. salt. 

Beat the egg until thick, add the salt, butter (melted) 
and milk. Sift in the flour, beating until smooth. Stir in 
the corn and baking powder, mixing well. Put into a 
sautepan enough cottolene or lard to cover the bottom when 
melted. Place it on the stove, and when smoking hot, drop 
in the batter, by small tablespoonsful. 

Brown lightly on one side, then turn and brown the 
other. Serve at once. 

CORN FUDDING. 

2 eggs* i T. butter, melted. 

1 1-2 c. corn. 3-4 t. salt. 

1 c. milk. 1-8 t. pepper. 

The corn should be young. Cut it from the cob. Beat 
the eggs light without separating. Add the other ingre¬ 
dients. Turn into a small baking dish. Cook in a moderate 
oven until firm in the center, usually from 30 to 40 minutes. 
Serve hot, as a vegetable. 

FRIED OR SAUTED ONIONS. 

Peel the onions and cut them crosswise into thin slices. 
For 4c. of sliced onion use 4 T. drippings or butter, 1 t. 
salt, 1-6 t. pepper. Heat the fat in an agateware pan. Put 
in the onions, sprinkle with the salt. Cook over a slow fire, 
stirring occasionally until tender and slightly browned. 
Dust with pepper. Serve alone as a vegetable, or put them 
on the top of a broiled or panned beefsteak. 

SCALLOPED ONIONS. 

i c. sliced onions. 1 1-2 T. butter. 

3-4 c. stale bread crumbs. 1-4 t. salt. 

1-2 c. cream sauce. 1-16 t. pepper. 

Boil the sliced onions in salted water until tender. 
Make the cream sauce, and add the onions, which have 
been well drained. Melt the butter, and mix it with the 
bread crumbs, adding also the salt and pepper. Spread 
half of the crumbs over the bottom of a baking dish, cover 


1 egg. 

1-2 c. milk. 
3-4 c. flour. 


130 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

with the onions, and put the remaining crumbs on top. Bake 
on the upper rack of the oven for about 15 to 20 minutes, 
or until the top is lightly browned. 

BOILED STRING BEANS. 

Wash and string the beans, and cut or break them 
into half-inch pieces. Cook in boiling salted water until 
tender. Drain, measure and to each cup'of beans allow 
1 T. butter, 2 T. cream or milk, and 2 dashes pepper. Heat 
all together until steaming hot. 

HOT SLAW. 

Trim the cabbage, wash it, and cut into quarters. Then 
slice fine. Cook rapidly in boiling, salted water until ten¬ 
der. Drain, measure, and to 2 c. allow 1-2 c. strong vine¬ 
gar, 4 T. butter, 1 1-2 t. salt, 1-4 t. pepper, 4 t. sugar. Put 
all together in a saucepan, cover, and simmer gently for 5 
minutes. Serve hot. 

COLE SLAW. 

1 c. finely sliced cabbage. 2 t. sugar. 

1-6 c. thick sour cream or milk. 1-2 t. salt. 

1-6 c. vinegar. 1-8 t. white pepper. 

Yolk 1 egg. Speck of cayenne. 

Wash the cabbage, trim off any discolored parts, cut 
in quarters, and slice in very fine shreds, using only the 
outer parts of the head. (The coarser portions, near the 
center may be cooked as creamed cabbage, or else chopped 
fine, and made into pepper sauce.) Put the sour cream 
into a saucepan. If thick milk is used instead add 1-2 T. 
butter. Set in on the fire and let it become steaming hot. 
Meanwhile, beat the yolk of egg and add to it the remain¬ 
ing ingredients, then turn this mixture into the hot cream. 
Stir all together over the fire until slightly thick, remove, 
and pour over the cabbage, mixing well. Set away to coo 1 , 
stirring occasionally. 

CREAMED CABBAGE. 

Trim and wash the cabbage. Cut it in half-inch pieces 
Put into boiling salted water and' cook rapidly, uncovered, 
until tender, about 20 minutes. Drain and measure. One 
cup of cream sauce will be required for 2c. of cabbage. 
Heat the cabbage in the sauce and serve. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


I 3 I 


LETTUCE, DUTCH STYLE. 

1 medium-sized head lettuce. 1-2 c. sour cream. 

1-4 lb. bacon or ham. 2 T. vinegar. 

_ 1 egg. 

Separate the leaves of lettuce, wash them thoroughly, 
and tear the large leaves into several pieces. Cut the 
bacon into half-inch blocks, and saute until a pale brown ; 
add the cream, bring to boiling point, thicken with the egg 
which has been beaten, add the vinegar and 2 dashes )f 
pepper. Pour the dressing, while hot, over the lettuce, 
mix thoroughly and serve at once. 

BOILED ASPARAGUS. 

Wash the asparagus carefully and cut off the tough 
ends. Tie it in a bundle, and put into a saucepan, with 
the tips up. Pour on enough boiling water to come within 
an inch of the top. Add 1 t. of salt to each pint of water. 
Simmer until tender. Drain. Save 1 c. of water, and use 
it in making a drawn butter sauce. When it is finished 
pour it over the asparagus, which has been kept hot. 

DRAWN BUTTER SAUCE. 

4 T. butter. 1 c. boiling water. 

2 T. flour. 1-2 t. salt. 

, 1-8 t. white pepper. 

Put the flour and half of the butter into a saucepan 
and stir over the fire until well blended. Add the boiling 
water, or—better—the same amount of water in which 
the vegetable has been cooked. Stir constantly until boil¬ 
ing and thick. Add seasoning, using less if the vegetable 
stock has been seasoned previously. Add the remaining 
butter, stirring until it melts. The sauce should not boil 
after this last portion of butter has been turned in. 

CREAMED CELERY. 

I 1-2 c. celery, cut into i-inch pieces. 1-2 c. cream sauce. 

For this recipe, one may use the outer portions of the 
celery, which are not tender enough to serve raw. Cook 
the celery in white stock, or salted water, for 20 to 30 
minutes. Drain well, put it into the cream sauce, reheat, 
and serve hot. 

CAULIFLOWER WITH CHEESE SAUCE. 

I medium-sized head cauliflower. 1 c. cream sauce. 

4 T. grated or finely chopped cheese. 


132 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

Trim the leaves from the cauliflower and soak it, head 
down, in salted water for 1-2 hour. This is for the purpo e 
of drawing out insects should any be lodged among the 
flowerets. Then place the cauliflower, head down, in 1 
large saucepan of salted, boiling water, and cook rapidly 
for 15 to 20 minutes, or until tender. Drain thoroughly. 
Cut the flowerets apart, put it into the sauce, reheat, and 
serve. 

To make the cheese sauce, prepare cream sauce and 
add the cheese, stirring over the fire until the cheese melts, 
season with paprika or cayenne. 

STEWED TOMATOES. 

Wash the tomatoes, pour boiling water over them, let 
stand a moment, drain and cover with cold water. Then 
peel them, and cut into pieces. Put them in a granite 
saucepan and cook for about 10 to 15 minutes, until tender. 
Measure and to each pint allow 2 T. butter, 4 T. flour, 
2 T. stale bread crumbs, 1-2 t. salt and 1-12 t. pepper. If 
the tomatoes are very sour, 1 t. granulated sugar may be 
added. Put the butter and flour into a saucepan, rub to¬ 
gether until smooth, pour in the tomatoes, then stir con¬ 
stantly over the fire until boiling and thick. Mix in the 
rest of the ingredients and serve. Canned tomatoes may 
be dressed in the same way. 

FRIED (or sauted) TOMATOES. 

Either green or ripe tomatoes may be sauted. Most 
persons prefer the latter. Select smooth ones of medium 
size, wash them and cut crosswise into half-inch slices. 
Sprinkle on both sides with salt and pepper. Put into a 
skillet enough of drippings or other fat to cover the bot¬ 
tom of the pan when melted. Place on the stove until 
smoking hot, then lay in the slices of tomato, dipping each 
into flour just before putting it in the pan. Brown on one 
side, then turn and brown the other. If the pan becomes 
too dry while cooking, add more fat. When finished, put 
the tomatoes on a heated dish. Measure the grease in the 
pan, and to each T. add 1 T. flour, and mix until smooth. 
To this amount add 1-2 c. milk, and stir constantly over the 
fire until boiling, season if needed and pour over the 
tomatoes. Serve hot. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


133 


BREADED TOMATOES. 

W ash and wipe the tomatoes, and cut crosswise into 
slices from one-half to three-fourths of an inch thick. Sea¬ 
son them on both sides, dip into slightly beaten egg, and 
then into either stale or dried bread crumbs. (The former 
give a better appearance, while the latter are more econom¬ 
ical.) Put into a skillet enough grease to be about a six¬ 
teenth of an inch deep when melted. Let it become smok¬ 
ing hot, lay in the tomatoes, brown on one side, then on 
the other, turning only once. Serve on a heated dish. 

If more fat is needed during the cooking, add only 
a small portion at a time. 

FRUITS. 

APPLE SAUCE. 

Select tart, spicy apples, wash, cut them into quarters, 
remove blossom and stem ends, and core, but do not pare. 
Drop them into cold water until all are ready, then drain, 
put them into a granite saucepan and add boiling water in 
the proportion of 1-2 c. water to 1 qt. apples. Cover, bring 
quickly to boiling point, then simmer until tender. Press 
through a granite ware colander, measure and to each cup 
of sauce allow 2 T. granulated sugar. Stir the sauce and 
sugar together over the fire until steaming hot, and serve 
either hot or cold. If the sauce is preferred hot, 1 t. butter 
may be added to each cup of sauce. In case it is to be used 
cold, a slight grating of nutmeg, or small amount of ground 
cinnamon may be stirred in. 

STEWED APPLES. 

For this recipe, sweet apples are better than sour, .as 
the former keep their shape in cooking. Wash the fruit, 
cut into quarters, take out the core, blossom and stem ends, 
and pare. Drop the pieces into cold water until all are 
finished. Drain, place them in a granite saucepan, broad 
enough that there may be only one layer of fruit. Pour 
into the pan 3 T. boiling water for each apple, and sprinkle 
with sugar, 1 1-2 T. to each apple. Cover the saucepan, 
and cook very slowly until tender, but not broken. (Turn 
them over once while cooking.) Remove carefully, pour 
the syrup over them, sprinkle with a little grated nutmeg 
and serve cold. After taking out the apples, if the syrup 
looks thin let it boil without a cover for several minutes. 


134 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


BAKED APPLES. 

Tart apples of good size should be used for baking. 
Wash them, take out the stem and blossom ends and cores. 
Make a cut through the skin directly around the center of 
the apple. This keeps them from bursting in an unsightly 
way. Arrange them close together in a baking pan, and 
put into the cavity of each i T. granulated sugar, 1-2 t. 
butter and 1-16 t. ground cinnamon. Cover the bottom of 
the pan with boiling water, place in a brisk oven and bake 
—basting every 10 minutes—until the fruit is tender. If 
the water in the pan cooks away, add a little more. When 
finished, there should be a small amount of juice to pour 
over the apples. Serve either hot or cold. 

STEWED RHUBARB. NO. I. 

I 1-2 c. rhubarb. 1-2 c. sugar. 

3 T. water. 

Wash and trim the rhubarb, but do not peel it unless 
tough. Cut it in inch pieces; and put into a saucepan, 
adding the sugar and water. Bring to boiling point, then 
simmer until tender and clear. If it is not stirred while 
cooking the pieces will keep their shape fairly well. Serve 
cold. 

STEWED RHUBARB. NO. 2. 

Use the same proportions as in stewed rhubarb No. i, 
but omit the water. After preparing the rhubarb put it 
and the sugar into a double boiler and cook until tender. 
Remove the rhubarb with care so that the pieces may not 
lose their shape, return the syrup to the fire and cook, 
uncovered, until slightly thick. Pour it over the rhubarb 
and serve cold. 

STEWED RAISINS. 

1-2 c. raisins. 1-2 T. cornstarch. 

1 c. boiling water. 1-8 c. sugar. 

2 thin slices lemon, if liked. 

Wash, stem and seed the raisins, put them into a sauce¬ 
pan with the boiling water, bring to a boil, then simmer 
until tender—about 20 or 30 minutes. Remove, strain out 
the fruit and measure the liquid. There should be 1-2 c. 
If not, add water. Mix the sugar and cornstarch, pour 
over them the hot liquid, stirring thoroughly. Return to 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


135 


the fire and continue to stir until boiling and clear; remove, 
add the raisins (and slices of lemon, if desired) and turn 
out to cool. 

PICKLED PRUNES. 

1-4 lb. prunes. 2 in. stick cinnamon. 

1-2 c. vinegar. 3-8 t. whole cloves. 

3-8 c. sugar. 1-2 doz. whole allspice. 

1-2 small bay leaf. 

Wash the prunes, soak over night and when ready to 
cook, drain, saving 1-4 c. of the water. Put it and the 
prunes in a saucepan, add the rest of the ingredients, bring 
to a boil, then simmer for about a half-hour, or until the 
fruit is tender. Drain, return the juice to the fire, and 
boil, uncovered, until thickened somewhat. Pour it over 
the prunes, and serve cold, with meat. 

STEWED CRANBERRIES. 

i pt. cranberries. 1 c. granulated sugar. 

1-2 c. boiling water. 

Pick over the cranberries, wash them and put into a 
saucepan with the boiling water. Cook over a moderate 
fire for 5 minutes. Do not stir them. Then sprinkle the 
sugar over, and cook slowly, uncovered, for 10 minutes. 
Skim off any froth, turn them out, and put at once in a 
cold place. If properly cooked, the juice will form a jelly. 
Serve with chicken or turkey. 

STEWED EVAPORATED APRICOTS. 

1-4 lb. evaporated apricots. 1-4 c. sugar. 

1 c. cold water. 

Wash the apricots through several waters, then put 
them with the cup of cold water to soak over night, [n 
the morning set them on to cook in the same water, bring¬ 
ing to boiling point, then simmering until tender. Sprinkle 
the sugar over, and cook slowly for 10 minutes, then drain, 
return the juice to the fire and boil until slightly thick¬ 
ened. Pour it over the apricots, and stand away to cool. 

STEWED DRIED PEACHES. 

1-4 lb. dried peaches. 3-8 c. sugar. 

1 1-2 c. cold water: 

Prepare and cook in the same way as evaporated 
apricots. 


136 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


BEVERAGES. 

TEA. 

5 t. tea. 1 pt. freshly boiled water. 

Scald an earthenware teapot, put in the tea, pour on it 
the boiling water, cover and let it stand for 5 minutes on 
a moderately warm part of the stove—where it cannot boil. 
Then use immediately, if possible. In case it can not be 
served at once, pour the tea into a heated pitcher, throw 
away the leaves, then return the tea to the pot and keep 
hot until needed. 

COFFEE (BOILED.) 

5 T. ground coffee. 1 1-2 c. boiling water. 

1-2 T. white of egg, or 1-2 shell, crushed. 1-2 c. cold water. 

Grind the coffee moderately fine, put it into the pot, 
stir in the egg and 1-4 c. cold water. Pour on it the freshly 
boiled water, place over a brisk fire and bring rapidly to 
boiling point. Then set it on the back of the stove, pour 
in quickly 1-4 c. cold water and let stand 5 minutes to 
settle. If not ready to use at once, treat in the same way 
as directed for tea. 

FRENCH COFFEE. 

5 T. ground coffee. 1 pt. boiling water. 

For this method, the coffee should be ground very 
fine. Scald a French (or drip) coffee pot, and set it on 
a part of the stove where it will keep warm. Put the coffee 
on the upper strainer, pour freshly boiled water over it 
slowly and replace the lid. If desired extra strong, a cup¬ 
ful or two may be taken out and poured over the coffee 
a second time. Naturally, some flavor escapes when this 
is done. 

After the liquid all drains through, in about 3 minutes, 
the beverage is ready to serve. 

If it is desired to make coffee in a cheese-cloth bag, 
by the drip process, the berry should be ground to a powder. 


4 t. cocoa. 
8 t. sugar. 


COCOA. 


1 c. boiling water. 
1 c. milk. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


137 


Put the cocoa and sugar into a saucepan, mix thor¬ 
oughly, pour in the boiling water, bring the mixture to a 
boil, and cook for 2 minutes. Meanwhile, put the milk into 
another saucepan, let it become scalding hot, then add it *o 
the cocoa and serve at once. * I 

If liked, a few drops of vanilla extract may be stirred 
into the beverage at the moment of serving. 

CHOCOLATE. 

Chocolate is made like cocoa, except that 1 T. of 
grated chocolate is used in place of each t. of cocoa, and 
chocolate needs boiling for 3 minutes. 

SOUPS WITHOUT MEAT STOCK. 

CORN SOUP. 

I c. milk. 1-2 T. chopped parsley. 

1 c. boiling water 1-2 t. onion juice. 

2 T. butter 1-16 t. grated nutmeg. 

2 T. flour. 1-2 t. salt. 

1-2 c. canned or stewed corn. 1-16 t. pepper. 

Bring the milk and water to a boil, add the butter and 
flour, which have been well mixed, stir constantly until the 
soup boils, add the rest of the ingredients, let it stand over 
the fire for a moment, and is ready to serve. Do not boil 
after adding canned corn, as it has already been sufficiently 
cooked. 

GREEN PEA SOUP. 

Use stewed or canned peas, and make in the same 
way as corn soup. 

CREAM OF DRIED BEAN SOUP. 

I c. dried beans. 1 sprig parsley. 

1 c. milk. 1-2 small bay leaf. 

2 T. butter. 1 t. onion juice. 

2 T. flour. Salt, pepper. 

Soak the beans over night, then cook them, with the 
bay leaf and parsley, until tender. Drain, press through a 
sieve, add the milk and one cup of the water in which they 
were cooked; bring to boiling point and thicken with the 
flour and butter which have been well blended. Add the 
onion juice and seasoning, and serve with croutons. 


138 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


POTATO CHOWDER. 


2 medium-sized potatoes, 
i oz. bacon or ham. 
i c. milk. 

i 1-2 c. boiling water. 


1 small onion. 

2 T. butter. 

2 T. flour. 

1-2 T. chopped parsley. 


Salt, pepper. 

Scrub the potatoes, pare them and cut into half-inch 
blocks; chop the onion fine and cut the bacon or ham in 
small pieces. Then cook the meat and onions together, 
stirring occasionally, until a pale brown; add the potatoes 
and the boiling water, and simmer for 20 minutes. Pour 
in the milk, let the soup come again to a boil, add the 
salt and pepper, also the butter and flour which have been 
well mixed, and stir constantly until boiling. Then cook 
for a minute or two, sprinkle in the parsley, and it is ready 
to serve. 


PLAIN TOMATO SOUP. 


i c. stewed or canned tomatoes. 
1 1-2 c. boiling water. 

1 oz. ham. 

2 T. flour. 

1 T. butter. 


1-2 stalk celery. 
1-2 small onion. 
1-4 carrot. 

1-4 bay leaf. 

1-2 t. salt. 


1-12 t. pepper. 

Cut the ham, carrot, celery and onion into very small 
blocks or slices. Put the onion and ham into a small skillet, 
place over the fire and stir occasionally until slightly 
browned. Then turn them into a saucepan adding the car¬ 
rot, celery, bay leaf and water. Bring to a boil and sim¬ 
mer for 20 minutes, then pour in the tomatoes and simmer 
for 10 minutes. Press through a sieve and measure. The *e 
should be 2 c. If not, add water. Return the soup to the 
fire, let it come to a boil and stir in the butter and flour 
which have been well blended. Continue to stir until boil¬ 
ing, add the seasoning and serve. 

Should the tomatoes be sour, 1-4 t. bicarbonate of soda, 
or 1-2 t. sugar may be stirred in just before serving. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


139 


SUGARS. 

CANDY. 

Clear Lemon Taffy. 

1 c. granulated sugar. 2 T. butter. 

1-4 c. water. 2 t. lemon juice. 

Grated rind 1-4 lemon. 

Boil the sugar and water, without stirring, until a soft 
ball may be formed when the syrup is dropped into cold 
water, then add the butter and lemon juice, and boil until 
the syrup will crack. Have a greased pan ready, scatter 
the lemon rind on it, pour the syrup over, let stand until 
almost cold, then crease into squares. 

WALNUT MOLASSES CANDY. 

1-4 c. New Orleans molasses. 1 T. water, 

i-2 c. brown sugar. 1 T. butter. 

1-2 c. chopped walnuts. 1 T. vinegar. 

1-4 t. soda. 

Boil the molasses, sugar, -butter, water and vinegar 
over a slow fire until the syrup will crack when cooled in 
cold water, then add the soda. As soon as it foams, remove 
from the fire, and pour over the walnuts, which have been 
placed on a greased tin pan, then stand away until cold. 

CARAMEL NUT TAFFY. 

i c. granulated sugar. 1-4 c. chopped nuts. 

Roasted peanuts will answer quite well for this taffy. 
Chop them fine. Grease a tin pie plate. Scatter the nuts 
over. Put the sugar into a small iron pan and stir con¬ 
stantly over a moderate fire until it melts and turns a pale 
brown. Remove at once, and pour it over the nuts. When 
slightly cool, mark off into squares. This candy should 
be used soon after it is made, as it quickly gathers moisture. 

PULLED TAFFY. 

i c. brown or granulated sugar. 2 T. butter. 

1-8 c. vinegar. 1-8 c. wate~. 

1-2 t. flavoring. 

Put the sugar, water and vinegar into a saucepan. Stir 
until it begins to bubble, then cook without stirring until it 
will spin a thread. Add the butter. Cook until it is brittle. 
Pour out on a greased tin plate. Do not scrape out the 
saucepan, or the candy will be sugary. Stand away until 
cool enough to pull. Pour the flavoring in the center and 


140 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

fold the taffy over it . Pull until light colored and stiff, 
then cut into inch pieces. 

In pulling any kind of taffy, keep the hands firm. Let 
the candy move. If the hands are allowed to slip along 
the taffy, they will probably blister. There is no necessity 
for greasing the hands before pulling taffy. 

MAPLE NUT FUDGE: 

1 c. maple sugar. 1-4 c. chopped pecans. 

1-4 c. cream or milk. 2 T. butter. 

1-4 t. vanilla extract. 

Boil the sugar and cream until the soft ball stage is 
reached, add the butter and cook again until it may be 
formed into a soft ball; then remove from the fire and beat 
until slightly cooled, add the nuts and vanilla, and continue 
beating until stiff enough to retain its shape. Pack in a 
greased pan, and cut into blocks. 

CHOCOLATE CARAMELS. 

2 oz. unsweetened chocolate. 1-2 lb. brown sugar. 

1 T. molasses. 2 T. butter. 

1-4 c. cream or milk. I t. vanilla extract. 

Put the chocolate into a small saucepan and set it over 
the steam of the tea-kettle to melt. Into another small 
saucepan turn the cream or milk, molasses, sugar and but¬ 
ter. Stir over a moderate fire until it begins to bubble. 
Then cook slowly until it will form a soft ball when dropped 
into cold water. Add the chocolate and cook again untd 
a stiff, but not hard, ball can be formed. Pour in the 
vanilla when nearly finished. Have a small square pan 
well greased. When the candy is done, pour it in. Do not 
scrape the saucepan. Set it away until almost cold, then 
mark off the blocks. 

PROTEIDS. 

CHEESE. 

Cottage Cheese, or Schmier-Kase. 

Place thick, sour milk on the back of the stove, and 
heat slowly until the curd and whey separate. If tested 
with a thermometer, it should register from 115 0 to 120 0 T. 
Pour the cheese into a thin muslin or cheesecloth bag, and 
let it drain as dry as possible without pressure. If no suit¬ 
able bag is at hand, a piece of cheesecloth laid over a sieve 
or colander will answer. When no more moisture drips 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


I4I 

out, mash the cheese fine with a fork, or press it through 
a sieve. To each cup add 1-2 t. salt and 4 T. or more of 
cream, beating the cheese as light as possible. If liked, 1-12 
t. white pepper may be stirred in. Chill the cheese, if pos¬ 
sible, before serving. 

SCALLOP OF RICE AND CHEESE. 

1 c. milk. 1-4 c. bread crumbs. 

1-2 c. rice. 1 T. butter. 

3 oz. grated cheese. Salt. Paprika. 

Cook the rice as directed for boiled rice. (It should 
make about 1 1-2 c. after cooking.) Drain well, then put 
layers of rice and cheese in a small baking dish, sprinkling 
a little salt and red pepper over each layer of rice. Pour 
the milk over. Melt the butter, stir it well with the bread 
crumbs, then spread these over the top of the mixture. 
Bake on the upper rack of a moderate oven until the 
crumbs are brown. Serve at once. 

CHEESE CUSTARD TOAST. 

4 slices bread. 1-4 lb. sharp cheese grated. 

2 eggs. 2 T, butter. 

1 c. milk. 1-4 t. salt. 

Sprinkling of cayenne. 

Spread the butter on the bread, then cut it in inch 
blocks. Select a small baking dish, put in the bread and 
scatter the cheese over it. Beat the eggs, add to them 
the milk, salt and pepper, and pour over the mixture of 
bread and cheese. Bake in a moderate oven until the 
custard is set, and the top browned. Serve hot. 

EGGS. 

SOFT BOILED EGGS. 

Select a saucepan of a size to hold the eggs with only 
little spare space. Pour into it boiling water, allowing 1 c. 
for each egg. Slip the eggs into the water, put a lid on 
the saucepan, and place it on a table, or where it may keep 
warm (not hot) for 10 minutes. By this means, the white 
and yolk cook evenly, and are soft and jelly-like. 

POACHED EGGS. 

Fill a shallow pan half full of boiling water, adding 
1 t. of salt for each pint of water, and place the pan where 
the water can barely simmer. Break each egg separately 
into a saucer, and slip it carefully into the water. When 


142 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


the white is set, but still slightly clear, trim off any rough 
edges, then lift out the egg, and place it on a neat square 
or circle of dry toast—which has been prepared before 
cooking the egg. Serve at once, passing melted butter, if 
desired. 

Fresh eggs only are satisfactory for poaching. In 
case such can not be had, the eggs keep their shape better, 
and there is less waste, if they are cooked in a utensil 
called an egg poacher. This has a separate cup for each 
egg- 

SCRAMBLED EGGS. 

4 eggs. 21-2 T. butter. 

2 T. hot water. 1-2 t. salt. 

1-12 t. pepper. 

Break the eggs into a dish, add the hot water and stir 
it through the whites, being careful not to break the yolks. 
(The hot water dilutes the albumen, and makes the cooked 
egg more tender.) Melt the butter in a small skillet, turn 
in the eggs, and as they set,.loosen from the pan with a 
limber-bladed knife. They should not be stirred constantly, 
else the white and yolk become too thoroughly blended. 
(Scrambled eggs, when finished, should show the white 
and yolk distinct. In this they differ from an omelet.) 
When almost done, sprinkle with the salt and pepper, 
which have been mixed together. As soon as the eggs are 
set, turn them out on dry toast or on a warmed platter 
and serve at once. 

PLAIN (or french) OMELET. 

2 eggs. i T. butter. 

2 T. hot water. • 1-4 t. salt. 

1-16 t. pepper. 

Scour a small omelet pan with salt, wipe out with a 
dry towel, put the butter in the pan, and set on the back 
of the stove to melt while preparing the omelet. Beat the 
eggs—without separating—barely enough to mix the white 
and yolk well. They must not be light. Then stir in the 
. hot water. Bring the pan to the front of the stove, as soon 
as the butter bubbles turn in the eggs, and as they set lift 
them up from the bottom with a thin-bladed knife, letting 
the uncooked part run under. When lightly set, springe 
with the salt and pepper, fold one-half over the other, then 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


143 


place on the hottest part of the stove for a moment to brown 
the under side. Loosen carefully from the pan, and turn 
out on a heated platter, bringing the under side up. Serve 
immediately. 

Before beginning to make an omelet, be sure that all 
utensils and materials needed are at hand. Unless the 
omelet is prepared quickly and carefully it will not be a 
success. 

Plain Omelet may be varied in many ways. For in¬ 
stance, to make a Corn Omelet, have ready 3-4 c. stewed 
corn, put two tablespoonsful over the omelet before folding, 
and pour the rest about it, when turned out on the platter. 
Tomato Omelet, using stewed tomatoes, is made in the same 
manner. 

CREAMED EGGS. 

4 eggs. 1 c. cream sauce. 

Put the eggs into a saucepan of boiling water, bring it 
quickly to a boil again, then cook for 15 minutes. Remove 
the eggs, take off the shells, and cut the eggs in half cross¬ 
wise. Slice a small bit from each end so that the halves 
may be stood upright. Make the sauce while the eggs are 
cooking, and when ready to serve, pour it out on a platter,, 
stand the eggs in it and serve hot. 

OYSTERS. 

RAW OYSTERS. 

Select plump oysters of medium size. Strip them care¬ 
fully. A small piece of shell swallowed may cause serious 
trouble. If rinsing is necessary, use their own liquor. 
Water impairs the flavor. Put crushed ice in a small plate, 
lay on it five or six oysters, with a slice of lemon. Set the 
plate on a larger one to catch any water when the ice melts. 
Pass salt and paprika or cayenne with them; also wafers 
or whole wheat bread. If shells can be obtained, serve 
the oysters, with their liquor, in the deep shell. 

CREAMED OYSTERS. 

2 solid cups of oysters. 1 c. cream sauce. 

4 slices hot buttered toast. 

Make the sauce and the toast before the ovsters are 
cooked. Scald the oysters in their own juice. Save 2 T. 


144 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE 


of the liquor which draws out of the oysters during the 
cooking. Add it and the cooked oysters to the hot sauce. 
Pour over the toast and serve at once. 

OYSTER SOUP. 

i solid cup of oysters. 3 T. butter.. 

1-4 c. oyster liquor. 3-4 t. salt. 

1 pt. milk. 1-16 t. paprika or cayenne. 

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add the butter and 
seasoning. Scald the oyster liquor in a small saucepan. Put 
in the oysters. Skim while they are heating. When well- 
puffed up and the gills curled, remove at once from the 
stove, pour them and the liquor into the milk and serve. 

SCALLOPED OYSTERS. 

1 solid c. of oysters. 1-4 c. cream. 

2 c. stale bread crumbs. 1-4 c. oyster liquor. 

3 T. butter. 1 t. salt. 

1-8 t. paprika. 

Mix the seasoning and bread crumbs. Melt the butter 
and add it. Put one-third the crumbs in the bottom of a 
small baking dish, then half of the oysters, and so on until 

the ingredients are all used, thus having three layers of 

crumbs and two of oysters. Pour the cream and oyster 
liquor over the top; or, if cream is not convenient, all oyster 
liquor may be used. Bake in a quick oven for 20 to 30 
minutes. 

FISH. 

FRIED FISH. 

Small fish are fried whole. See that the fish is scaled, 
cleaned, washed and wiped dry. Sprinkle inside and out 
with salt and pepper. Roll in cornmeal, or dip into slightly 
beaten e<rg. and then into bread crumbs. Fry in deep fat, 
which is hot enough to brown a bit of bread in 1 minute. 
Drain on paper and serve very hot. Either slices of lemon 
or tomato sauce may be served with the fish. 

SAUTED FISH. 

Large fish, cut into portions of a size suitable for 
serving, may be sauted. They are much nicer if boned 
before cooking. 

Season each piece well, roll it in flour or cornmeal. 
The latter gives a sweeter flavor, and better appearance. 
If desired, egg and bread crumbs may be used, instead. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


145 


Put into a saute pan enough fat to be about an eighth 
of an inch in depth after melting. Heat until smoking hot, 
lay in the fish, brown on one side, then the other, turning 
only once. Do not crowd the pieces in the pan so that they 
are difficult to turn, as there is danger of breaking the 
crust. Add a little more fat from time to time, if needed. 
Serve very hot, on a warmed platter. Lemon and parsley 
may be used as a garnish. 

BROILED FISH. 

Small fish may be broiled whole. Large fish are split 
into halves, lengthwise. If the bones are removed, the two 
sections cook more evenly; also, the fish is easier to serve. 
In any case, be sure that the fish is well scaled, cleaned, 
rinsed and wiped dry. 

Grease a double broiler with suet, lay in the fish, brush 
it lightly with butter, and cook over a brisk fire. If the 
fish has been split, broil the flesh side first until as brown 
as desired, then cook the skin side, being verv careful not 
to burn it. If the flesh side be well cooked, the other side 
will need onlv a few minutes, perhaps one-third of the 
entire time. A medium-sized fish may be broiled in about 
15 minutes. 

When done, remove it with care from the broiler. 
(The muscular fibre of fish being short, breaks easily.) 
Lav it on a heated platter, spread ouickly with melted butter, 
sprinkle with salt and pepper, and serve as hot as possible. 

CREAMED FISH. 

2 c. cooked fish. 1 c. cream sauce. 

Free the fish from skin and bones, and separate it into 
medium-sized flakes. (Tt is best to use a silver fork or 
knife. Steel spoils the flavor of fish.) Make the cream 
sauce, add the fish, and stir over the fire until steaming 
hot. Serve on buttered dry toast, or garnish with toast' 
points. 

MEATS—FRESH. 

• BROILED BEEFSTEAK. 

Select a porterhouse or sirloin steak, wipe it, trim off 
anv surplus fat, put it into a greased double broiler, and 
cook over a brisk fire, turning every 2 minutes. When 


146 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


well puffed up, and brown on both sides, it is ready to 
serve, if liked rare. Sprinkle both sides with salt and 
pepper, turn out on a heated platter, and serve immediately. 

Should the steak be preferred well done, cook it from 
two to four minutes longer, depending on the thickness of 
the steak. Test it by pressing a fork against it. If the 
juice has lost its red color, the meat is well done. 

Beefsteak Smothered in Onions. For a small steak— 
weighing about 1 lb.—allow 6 medium-sized onions. Pre¬ 
pare them as directed for Fried (or Sauted) Onions, lay 
them on top of a broiled beefsteak, and serve hot. 


STUFFED BEEFSTEAK (OR MOCK DUCK.) 


1-4 lb. beefsteak. 

1 c. stale bread crumbs. 

2 T. butter. 


2 t. onion juice. 

1 t. sweet marjoram. 
1-2 t. salt. 

1 

1-12 t. pepper. 


2 T. chopped parsley. 


For this dish, the flank, skirt, or round steak should De 
used. Trim and wipe it. Melt the butter, pour it over the 
crumbs, add the flavorings and seasoning, stir well together, 
then spread the mixture over the steak. Roll it compactly 
and tie with twine. Put 3 T. of drippings or other fat into 
a saucepan and heat. Dredge the meat on all sides with 
flour, lay it in the hot grease, and turn at times until well 
browned all over. Then pour in enough boiling water to 
cover it, add 1 small bay leaf, 3 cloves, and a small onion, 
sliced. Simmer for about 1 1-2 hours, or until the meat -.s 
tender. Add 1 t. salt and 1-4 t. pepper when about half 
done. At serving time take out the meat, set it on a heated 
dish, and keep in the warming oven while making the 
sauce. Strain the liquid remaining in the pan, measure, 
and if there is not a cupful, add boiling water. Put it into 
the saucepan again, bring to a boil, and thicken with 2 T. 
flour which have been mixed smooth with 2 T. of cold 
water. Season the sauce if necessary. Remove the twine 
from the meat, lay it on a warm platter, and pour the 
sauce over. 

Some persons prefer a tomato sauce rather than a 
brown sauce with this dish. In such case, the brown sauce 
should be saved for use with warmed-over meats. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


147 


HAMBURG STEAKS. 

1 c. chopped lean beef. 1-2 t. onion juice. 

2 T. drippings or other fat. 1-2 t. salt. 

1-8 t. pepper. 

For this recipe, the cheaper cuts of beef, such as the 
bolar piece or round may be used. Remove all gristle and 
fat, then chop the meat very fine, and mix the seasoning 
and onion juice well with it. Form the mixture into four 
round, flat cakes. Put the fat into a saute pan, heat until 
smoking, lay in the meat, brown one side, then the other, 
and take out on a warmed platter. A brown sauce may 
accompany them. If there is not a tablespoonful of fat in 
the pan, add enough to make that amount. Then stir in 1 T. 
flour, add 1-2 c. stock or boiling water, and stir until it 
boils, seasoning if necessary. 

MEATS—CURED. 

PANNED HAM. 

If possible, select a slice from near the center of the 
ham, as the central cuts have less gristle and less bone 
than other portions. 

Trim the rind from the slice, leaving a rim of fat a 
half-inch wide, scrape off any bits of sawed bone, and 
make gashes an inch apart along* the fat. Heat an iron 
pan smoking hot, put in the meat, and when it can be 
loosened easily from the pan, turn and continue turning 
every two minutes until browned on both sides. It should 
cook over a moderate fire, in order to be well done. Take 
out on a heated platter, and serve alone, or with cream 
sauce. 

If liked, sour apples may be used as a garnish. To 
prepare: Wipe and core the apples, and cut them cross¬ 
wise in slices about 1-3 in. thick. After the ham is done, 
cook the apples in the grease remaining, in the pan. Brown 
them on both sides, cooking until tender, but not broken, 
and place them around the ham. 

CREAMED DRIED BEEF. 

2 oz. dried beef. 2 T. butter. 

1 c. milk. 2 T. flour. 

1-12 t. pepper. 

Have, the meat sliced very thin. If too salt, pour boil- 
ins' water over it, let it stand a moment, then drain thor- 

o 7 


148 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


oughly. Melt the butter in a skillet, put in the meat, and 
stir occasionally until slightly browned, mix in the flour, 
pour in the milk, and stir constantly until it boils, then 
season with pepper, and serve. 

LIVER AND BACON SAUTE. 

1-4 lb. calf’s liver. 1 T. flour. 

2 oz. bacon. Salt, pepper. 

The liver should be sliced very thin. Scald it and wipe 
dry. Have the bacon cut into as many slices as there are 
of liver. Cook the bacon in a saute pan until lightlv 
browned, then remove and keep it warm while preparing 
the liver. Dust the liver with flour, and cook in the fat 
until brown, sprinkling with salt and pepper. Arrange the 
meat on a platter with a slice of bacon on each slice of 
liver. Mix the T. of flour with the fat remaining in the 
pan, add 1-2 c. boiling water, stir until it boils and thickens, 
add salt and pepper, if needed, and pour over the meat. 

WARMED-OVER MEATS. 

CORNED BEEF HASH. 

i c. cooked corned beef, chopped fine. 2 T. butter, or 

drippings. 

1 c. cold boiled potatoes, chopped fine. 3-4 t. onion juice. 
3-8 c. stock or water. 1-6 t. pepper. 

Put the meat, potatoes, stock, .onion juice and pepper 
into a bowl, and mix well. Melt the butter in a small skillet. 
Pack in the hash, making it smooth over the top, then cover 
the pan and place it on the back part of the stove, where 
it will brown slowly. Do not stir. Cook about 30 minutes. 
When done, fold like an omelet and turn out on a heated 
platter. It may be garnished with toast points and parsley. 

BEEF WITH MACARONI BORDER. 

I c. cooked beef, cut into half-inch blocks. 

1 1-2 c. tomato sauce. 1 c. boiled macaroni. 

Make the tomato sauce and divide in half. Into one 
part put the beef, into the other, the macaroni. Set both 
mixtures over the fire, and stir them until steaming hot. 
Add more seasoning, if necessary. Turn the macaroni out 
on a warmed platter, spreading it to form a circle, place 
the meat in the center, and serve hot. If liked, 1-2 T. 
finely chopped parsley may be scattered over the top. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


149 


MEAT AND POTATO PIE. 

I c. cooked meat, cut into half-inch blocks. 

1 1-2 c. hot mashed potatoes, well seasoned. 

3-4 c. gravy or any preferred sauce. 

Yolk 1 egg. 1 T. milk. 

Mix the meat and gravy and place in a small baking- 
dish. Spread the mashed potato over the top. Beat the 
yolk of egg, add to it the milk, and brush the mixture 
over the top of the potato. Place the dish on the upper 
rack of a moderate oven and bake until the top is lightly 
browned. Serve at once. 

batters ; doughs; baking powder. 

A batter, whose original meaning is anything battered 
or beaten, consists of two or more materials mixed by 
beating. The simplest form of batter is a mixture of water 
and some starchy material such as flour. According to 
their consistency, batters are termed thin or pour batters, 
and thick or drop batters. A pour batter is usually made 
in the proportion of 1 cup of liquid to 1 cup or 1 1-2 cups 
of flour. Pop-overs are an example of the first, and wheat* 
gems of the second proportions. A thick or drop batter 
has 2 cups, or a little more of flour to each cup of liquid. 
The term sponge applies to a pour batter containing yeast. 
Dough is a batter stiff enough to be handled. The pro¬ 
portions for a dough vary from 3 to 4 cups of flour for 
each cup of liquid. 

Batters and doughs are made light, to some extent, by 
the liquid contained in them. When the mixture is put into 
the oven, the intense heat expands the liquid, turning it 
into steam. Thus the entire batter “puffs up.” This means 
is used in the making of certain small breads for in¬ 
valids. However, the main cause of lightness in batters 
and doughs is gas. This may be merely air beaten into 
it, as in the old-time beaten biscuit. Again, air may be 
mixed in by the addition of eggs, which, because of their 
albumen, when beaten light, hold the air. Or, the gas 
may be carbon dioxide, produced by the growth of yeast, 
or by the action of baking powder. For ordinary use there 
are several mixtures that may be substituted for baking 
powder. We may take 1 level teaspoonful of bicarbonate 
of soda to 1 well-rounded teaspoonful of cream of tartar. 


150 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

This is, in general effect, the same as a cream of tartar 
baking powder. Bicarbonate of soda, combined with thick 
sour milk, is often used, the proportions needed being 1-2 
teanspoonful of soda to each cup of clabber. If Porto 
Rico molasses or sorghum—having an acid reaction—may 
be had. soda works well in the proportions of 1 teanspoon¬ 
ful to 1 cup of molasses. In any of these mixtures, and 
also in the manufactured baking powders, the reaction is 
that of an acid and an alkali in combination. The active 
principle, the soda, supplies gas. 

Bicarbonate of soda is a low-priced substance manu¬ 
factured from common salt. Cream of tartar, on the con¬ 
trary, is expensive. This material collects on the bottom 
and sides of grape wine casks, that from the sides being 
the better and purer. In this form it is called argols, and 
has a somewhat brownish or purplish color. In order to 
remove the color, and substances other than the cream of 
tartar, it is put through many purifying processes. Because 
of the cost of manufacture, and also the fact that in cold, 
rainy seasons grapes yield less than the usual amount of 
cream of tartar, its price alw r ays remains high. The low- 
priced baking powders have, instead of cream of tartar, 
some cheap substance, such as alum, which may prove very 
harmful to one’s health. (It is never an economy to save 
on food materials in such a way that there occurs later the 
expense of a doctor’s bill.) 

From the viewpoint of healthfulness, well-made phos¬ 
phate baking powders probably take first rank. As phos¬ 
phate powders readily absorb moisture, and lose strength, 
they should be bought in only small amounts, and one 
should be careful to keep them air-tight. The latter rule 
applies also to other kinds of baking powders. If allowed 
to grow damp, carbon dioxide gas is formed and escapes. 
In order to prevent this action, all baking powders have 
some starch added, and thus the particles of the acid and 
alkali are separated. The starch is called a '‘filler.” 

In general, the manufactured baking powders are more 
satisfactory than such mixtures made in the home. The 
housekeeper often adds too much soda, or neglects to mix 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


I 5 I 

it thoroughly with the other materials. Then the result 
is a yellowish dough, or one with brown spots throughout 
after baking, there is not the proper lightness, and the 
flavor is unpleasant. 

As the lightening of. dough by the growth of yeast is 
a slow process, the name “quick breads” has been given to 
those raised with baking powder or similar mixtures. These 
become light quickly, and are usually made in some small 
form, such as gems, biscuit, etc., so that they bake quickly 

Before beginning to mix any such articles, one should 
see that there is a steady fire, and a sufficiently hot oven. 
The baking pans need to be at hand, greased and heated, 
if necessary. After a batter is mixed, it should never be 
let stand to lose its lightness while one is getting the baking 
pans ready. In view of the fact that the moment baking 
powder is moistened it begins to work, we now add baking 
powder as the very last ingredient, and just before cooking 
the batter. By the old method, baking powder was mixed 
with the flour, and thus lost about one-fourth of its power 
for giving lightness. Naturally the rule of adding baking 
powder last can not apply to dough, since its stiffness 
would cause the powder to mix unevenly. 

QUICK BREADS. 

DROP BISCUITS. 

2 c. winter wheat flour. 2 t. baking powder. 

4 T. butter or 3 T. lard. 1-2 c. milk. 

1-2 t. salt. 

Sift the flour, salt and baking powder into a bowl and 
rub in the shortening until thoroughly mixed. Add the 
milk, moistening a small portion of the flour at a time. 
Use a little more liquid, if necessary, to make a batter that 
will drop from the spoon. Put into a baking pan, using 
2 T. batter for-each biscuit, placing them 2 inches apart. 
Bake in a brisk oven for 15 minutes. 

POP-OVERS. 

i egg. 2_ 3 c * R° ur - 

2-3 c. milk. I_ 4 t- salt. 

Grease iron gem pans, and set them in the oven to heat. 
Beat the egg until very light, and add to it the milk and 
salt. Sift the flour into a bowl. Pour the liquid on grad- 


152 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


ually, beating constantly. When well mixed, strain through 
a fine seive into the hot pans. Bake in a quick oven 30 
minutes until well puffed up and brown. If properly made 
and baked they will increase to three or four times their 
original size, and be hollow shells. 


WHEAT GEMS. 


2 T. butter. 

2 t. baking powder 
1-2 t. salt. 


2 eggs. 

1 c. milk. 

1 1-2 c. flour. 

Grease the gem pans and place them in the oven to 
heat. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks light, and add to 
them the milk and salt. Melt the butter and stir it in. 
Then sift in the flour gradually, beating until smooth. 
Whisk the whites of the eggs very stiff, add them and the 
baking powder folding in carefully. Pour the batter into 
the gem pans and bake in a hot oven about 30 minutes. 

CORN BREAD (WITH SODA.) 

2 c. white corn meal. 1 T. butter. 

1 c. thick, sour cream or buttermilk. 1-2 t. salt. 

2 eggs. 1-2 t. baking soda. 

Sift the corn meal into a bowl, add the salt and butter, 
pour over it 1 1-2 c. boiling water and stir until well mixed. 
Let cool, add the eggs well-beaten, and the sour cream. 
Beat thoroughly, then quickly stir in the soda, which has 
been dissolved in 2 t. boiling water. Turn at once into a 
well greased, shallow pan, and bake 30 minutes. 

SOUTHERN RICE BREAD. 

i egg. 3-4 c. flour. 

1-2 c. milk. 1-4 c. boiled rice. 

1 T. butter. 1-4 t. salt. 

1 1-2 t. baking powder. 

Beat the egg well, add the salt and the butter, melted, 
then add the rice, mixing until free from-lumps, pour in the 
milk, sift in the flour, and beat until smooth, stir in the 
baking powder, pour into a well-greased shallow pan, and 
bake 30 minutes. 

If desired, buttermilk or sour milk may be used instead 
of sweet milk. In this case, omit the baking powder, and 
use 1-4 t. bicarbonate of soda. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


153 


SOFT OATMEAL BREAD. 

1 c. cold, cooked oatmeal. 1-2 c. milk. 

2 eggs. 1-4 c. cornmeal. 

1-4 t. salt. 

Scald the milk, pour it over the corn meal, and stir 
until perfectly smooth. Mash all lumps from the oatmeal, 
mix it with the corn meal, then add the salt and the beaten 
yolks of eggs. Fold in carefully the stiffly beaten whites. 
Bake in a greased pan, in a moderately quick oven, and 
serve at once. 

BOSTON BROWN BREAD. 

.1 1-2 c. corn nmeal. 2 c. thick sour milk. 

1 c. wheat meal. 1-2 c. molasses. 

1 c. rye meal. 1 t. baking soda. 

1 t. salt. 

Sift all of the dry ingredients into a bowl. Add the. 
molasses and sour milk. Mix the batter thoroughly, but 
quickly. Pour into greased molds, having them slightly 
over half full; and steam 3 hours, or 41-2 hours if the 
batter is all put into one large mold. Then remove the 
covers, and place the molds in a moderate oven for one-half 
hour to dry the crust. Whether the bread is to be served 
warm or cold, remove from the molds while hot. 

Many persons like the addition to the batter of 1 c. 
seeded raisins. 

CAKES. 

There are two general classes of cake, those without 
butter, as sponge cake, and those containing butter, as 
pound cake. 

Sponge cake, when properly mixed, does not need 
baking powder. The eggs hold enough air to make the 
batter light. Pound cake, also, although very rich, has 
enough eggs to ensure lightness. With most cakes, how¬ 
ever, baking powder, or a substitute, is used. Certain 
kinds of cakes, such as the old-fashioned election cake, and 
several of foreign origin, are raised with yeast. 

The most wholesome cakes are those made from angel, 
sunshine, or sponge cake batter. Their two best features 
are the absence of shortening and of baking powder. The 
considerable amount of eggs in such cakes makes them 
fairly nutritious. ( 


154 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

In making cakes of any kind, one should use only good 
materials. By the heat of baking, poor materials are made 
worse. It has been said that the “goodness” of cake is its 
only excuse for being. 

Of the various shortenings used in cakes, butter gives 
the best flavor. When cheap cake is desired, some of the 
cottonseed preparations or drippings may be used. Chicken 
or goose grease answers for cakes containing molasses, 
spices, or chocolate, which disguise the meaty flavor of 
the fat. 

The sugar for cakes should be fine grained. If coarse 
it makes a heavy, sticky cake, with a hard.crust. In ca-e 
none other than coarse-grained sugar can be had, it should 
be sifted, and only the fine part used for cake. Brown 
sugar, occasionally called for in dark cakes, often contains 
hard lumps, which should be rolled out before using. 

In any cake water may be substituted for sweet milk, 
but water makes a somewhat thinner batter. Cakes con¬ 
taining whites of eggs (and no yolks) are more tender 
with water than with milk. 

For cakes, winter wheat or pastry flour, which is 
chiefly starch, proves better than spring wheat flour. The 
latter, on account of its gluten, makes a dry, tough cake. 
If none but spring wheat flour can be obtained, one-eighth 
less should be used than of winter wheat flour. 

Before beginning to mix a cake, all ingredients should 
be at hand, and measured. (The measuring of extracts is 
an exception.) Also, one should see that the heat of the 
oven is correct, and that there is a steady fire. It should 
be fixed, if possible, to last throughout the entire baking. 
Cake pans of heavy tin should be ready. (Cake burns in 
iron or agate pans.) Two thicknesses of paper are needed 
in pans for large loaf cakes. For layer cakes a single thick¬ 
ness of paper will answer. One should fit the paper 
smoothly over the bottom and sides of the pan, cutting out 
any extra fullness from the corners. It is a waste of time 
and material to grease the paper. An ungreased paper will 
not stick to any cake that is properly baked. Small cakes, 
such as cookies, do better in a pan without a paper lining. 
Even for these, the pan does not need to be greased, if the 
cakes are taken out of the pan as soon as baked. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


155 


Cake batter should be mixed in an earthen bowl, and 
with a wooden spoon. A tin pan or iron spoon will discolor 
the batter. 

While the heavy ingredients are being mixed cake 
needs vigorous beating, but after the beaten whites of eggs 
have been added, the batter must be folded together lightly. 

After turning the batter into the pan, if one spreads it 
out so that it is shallower in the center than around the 
sides, the cake will be of a fairly even thickness when baked. 
The pan should never be more than three-fourths full, or 
the batter may rise over the sides and be wasted. 

Drop cakes, and other small forms will bake in from 
8 to 12 minutes. For layer cakes, of about one inch in 
thickness when baked, 20 minutes is usually the time needed. 
Loaf cakes, about two to three inches in thickness, need, 
as a rule, 45 to 60 minutes. The length of time for baking 
depends, to a considerable extent, upon the richness of the 
cake. Those having much butter should have long baking 
in a moderate oven. Cakes containing molasses, which 
burns easily, need a slow oven. Sponge cake and angel 
cake should have a very slow oven, because they contain 
much egg albumen which is toughened by intense heat. 
Good results may be obtained if one divides the time for 
baking loaf cake or layer cake into four parts. During the 
first period the batter should show bubbles over the top, 

. and begin to rise; in the second part, it should rise consid¬ 
erably, and begin to brown; in the third period it should 
continue to brown; and at the end of the time it should 
have shrunk somewhat from the sides of the pan, and be 
settled slightly all over. 

To decide whether a cake is done, the finger may be 
pressed lightly on top, in the thickest part. If it sinks 
under the pressure, it is not thoroughly baked. Should it 
rise as soon as the pressure is removed, it may safely be 
taken from the oven. Testing a cake with a straw is un¬ 
wise, both because the straw may be unclean, and because 
a delicate cake may sink under such treatment, and fail . 
to rise again. 

As soon as a cake comes from the oven, one should 
remove it from the pan. (Angel cake is an exception.) 

It cools best on a wire cake rack, although a board covered 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


156 


with a clean towel will answer to rest it upon. The paper 
may be taken off a small cake at once. A large loaf cake, 
intended for use during several days, will keep moist longer 
if the paper is left on until the cake is needed. 

Cakes should be cooled before icing or cutting. Sponge 
cake is nicer broken apart in neat pieces rather than cut. 
Cakes having only a little shortening are best when used 
the day they are made. Cakes containing much shortening 
or many eggs are best the next day after baking. 

PLAIN CAKES. 


1 c. flour. 

3 T. butter or 2 T. lard. 
1-4 c. milk. 

5 T. sugar. 

3 T. chopped nuts. 


ROCK CAKES. 

3 T. currants. 

1 T. chopped candied orange peel. 
1 t. baking powder. 

1-4 t. salt. 

1-8 t. grated nutmeg. 

Sift the flour, salt, sugar and baking powder into a 
bowl, rub in the butter, then add the milk, using a little 
more, if needed, to make a medium stiff drop batter. Stir 
in the rest of the ingredients, drop by tablespoonsful on a 
greased baking pan, and bake in a quick oven for 15 minutes. 

GINGERBREAD. 

1-4 c. molasses. 1 c. flour. 

1-4 c. sour cream. 1 1-2 t. ground ginger. 

1-4 c. brown sugar. 3-4 t. cinnamon. 

2 T. butter. 1-2 t. baking soda. 

1 egg. ‘S9AOJ3 punoiS 4 h-i 

Beat the egg, butter and sugar together until light, add 
the molasses, cream and spices. Sift in the flour and bear 
until smooth. Dissolve the soda in a teaspoonful of warm 
water, add it to the batter, beat briskly for a moment, turn 
the mixture into a pan lined with paper, and bake in a 
moderate oven for 30 minutes. 

PLAIN LOAF CAKE. 

4 T. butter. 1 c. water. 

3-4 c. sugar. 2 c. flour. 

2 eggs. 4 t. baking powder. 

1 t. flavoring. 

Work the butter in a bowl until creamy, add the sugar 
gradually, and mix well. Separate the eggs. Beat the 
yolks, add them to the butter and sugar, and beat briskly 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


157 


for a few moments. Stir in the water, sift in the flour,, 
and beat until smooth. Add the flavoring. Whisk the 

whites of the eggs stiff, put them and the baking powder 

in at the same time, and fold lightly. Pour into a cake 
pan lined with paper, and bake in a moderate oven from 
30 to 40 minutes. 

PLAIN COOKIES. 

1-4 c. butter. 1-4 c. milk or water. 

1-2 c. sugar. 1 1-2 c. flour. 

1 egg. 1 1-2 t. baking powder. 

3-4 t. grated nutmeg. 

• Beat the butter to a cream, add the sugar gradually, 
beat the egg light without separating and add it to the 
butter and sugar, and beat again. Turn in the milk. Sift 
in the flour, adding the baking powder and nutmeg with 
the last half of the flour. When thoroughly mixed, turn 
out on a floured board. Roll 1-8 inch thick, cut out, and 
bake in a moderately quick oven 8 to 12 minutes. If liked, 

1 T. caraway seeds may be added before the flour, thus 
making Seed Cookies; or the addition of 1-2 c. chopped 
nuts will make Nut Cookies. 

SPONGE CAKE. 

Grated rind and juice of 1-2 lemon. 1 c. flour 

1 c. sugar. 4 eggs. 

Add the lemon rind and juice to the sugar, and mix 
well. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks light, add the 
sugar gradually and beat thoroughly; beat the whites oi 
the eggs stiff, fold them lightly into the batter, then sift m 
the flour, a little at a time, mixing lightly. Turn into a 
paper-lined pan, and bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 
minutes. 

LOAF BREADS. 

Bread seems to have been a staple article of food 
among even very early races of mankind. But the most 
ancient breads were not made in the form of loaves. In¬ 
stead, they resembled the thin biscuit or crackers of the 
present day. In some localities, certain of these primitive 
breads are still used. We may find, for instance, the oat 
cakes of Scotland, the cassava bread of the West Indies, 
the tortillas of Mexico, the corn pone of the Southern 
United States, and others. The Passover bread of thj 


I58 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

Jews is probably the oldest surviving bread of this kind. 
In any of them the mixture consists merely of some sort 
of meal and water, with the occasional addition of salt. 
Such a mass, when baked, naturally makes a hard, compact 
bread. The “raised” or “light” bread, however, made its 
appearance fairly early in the world’s history, as we learn • 
that the Egyptians, more than four thousand years ago, 
used leaven (sour dough) for causing fermentation. This 
method was adopted by the Greeks and later by the Romans, 
through whom the knowledge spread far and wide among 
the nations with whom they came in contact. Leaven is 
still preferred in place of yeast by many of our present 
day bakers. 

It would appear that the French first used yeast l r .i 
bread making. For a time, some thought yeast to be un¬ 
wholesome, and laws were passed allowing bakers to obtain 
it only from breweries in or near Paris. 

In the United States, the fine exhibit of the Vienna 
Bakery, at the Philadelphia Centennial, aroused much in¬ 
terest in bread making and in the use of commercial yeast. 
Since that time, baker’s bread in particular, has much 
improved. 

That which we commonly speak of as “yeast” whether 
liquid, dry, or compressed, consists, to a great extent jf 
tiny, one-celled plants. These are so small that they can 
be seen only with the microscope. They are round j : 
oblong in shape, and grow by a process called budding:— 
an old cell divides in two or more parts, each of these being 
an entire plant. 

Like any other vegetable growth, the yeast plant mu>t 
have warmth, moisture and food. It grows best at a temp¬ 
erature of 75 0 to 8o° F. A heat of-130° to 150° F. will 
usually kill the plant. At a low temperature, it may keep 
alive but will not grow. 

When yeast is placed in a mixture of starch and water, 
at a moderate temperature, it produces by its growth what 
we call fermentation. First, a part of the starch is turned 
into sugar. Then the yeast splits the sugar into alcohol 
and carbon dioxide. (The yeast acts as a ferment, and 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


159 


the process is called the alcoholic or vinous fermentation.) 
The bubbles of carbon dioxide formed throughout the 
dough cause the lightness of the bread. 

If dough is let stand too long, or in too warm a place, 
another ferment begins to work upon the alcohol, causing 
a souring, called the acetic acid fermentation. 

There are on the market three forms of yeast:— 
liquid, compressed and dried. Liquid yeast, called also 
bakers’, home-made, or everlasting, is made, as a rule, from 
potatoes, hops, sugar, salt, and a certain amount of water, 
with some previously made yeast added to start fermenta¬ 
tion. This keeps well, in a cool place, for about two weeks. 
In many respects it is quite satisfactory, but it may contain 
“wild” yeast plants or harmful bacteria. 

From the chemist’s standpoint, compressed yeast is the 
best kind to use, because the yeast plants in it are nearlv 
all of the one variety best suited for bread making. The 
manufacture of compressed yeast forms a large industry. 
Before being offered for sale, the yeast has enough starch 
added to make a stiff paste, which is wrapped in tin fod 
to exclude the air. Compressed yeast is fresh and good 
so long as it remains a deep creamy color, and firm enough 
that it may be crumbled easily. When it grows ropy, and 
shows grayish spots or streaks throughout, with mold on 
the outside, many of the yeast plants have no life. Such 
yeast, if used, will give a moldy, or other unpleasant flavor 
to the bread. 

Dried yeast may be made from either liquid or com¬ 
pressed yeast with the addition of some starchy material, 
usually cornmeal. The mixture is formed into small shapes, 
which are then dried thoroughly by slow heat. This so^t 
of yeast answers its purpose quite well, when fairly fresh. 
After being kept for two or three months many yeast 
plants die. 

The two general classes of wheat are known as winter 
wheat and spring wheat. The latter is planted in the spring 
and reaped the same year. Winter wheat, being seeded in 
the fall, remains in the ground during the winter and ma¬ 
tures the next summer. This kind is suitable for regions 


i6o 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


having a mild climate, while spring wheat does best 1 
northern latitudes, such as the Dakotas, Minnesota and 
Northwestern Canada. 

Of the two varieties, winter wheat, having little gluten, 
yields a flour suitable for the making of pies and cake^, 
and for general cooking purposes. 

Flour made from spring wheat, because of its larg'.-r 
percentage of gluten, proves the better for bread. (Gluten 
does not exist naturally in wheat, but is fQrmed in the 
presence of moisture from two substances found in the 
grain.) Flour whose gluten is weak, or in small amount, 
makes bread which easily “falls’’—that is, the gas bubbles 
break. Such flour is called “weak.” A “strong” flour is 
one in which the gluten, being tough, stretches enough to 
hold the bubbles of carbon dioxide. When the gluten has 
become set by the heat of baking, it helps to retain the 
shape of the loaf. A smaller amount of spring wheat flour 
than of winter wheat is required to stiffen a certain portion 
of liquid. Thus, spring wheat is the more economical for 
bread making. 

Not until about forty years ago, when the roller process 
of grinding made a great change in milling methods, did 
spring wheat become known as a source of high-grade 
flour. 

Previously, for many centuries, grain had been ground 
between two round, flat stones—called burr stones—placed 
one above the other. The upper stone was made to revolve. 
Both stones were grooved. The grain, being fed in through 
a hole in the upper stone, was crushed between the two, 
and then passed out through the grooves. Bv a later 
process of sifting, it was separated into three products, 
flour, middlings and bran. 

The power for turning mill stones has been had hi 
somewhat recent years from windmills, earlier from water¬ 
wheels and tread mills. At a still more remote period, the 
stones were turned by hand, while in primitive times the 
grains were crushed by means of a rude pestle and mortar. 

In the modern steam roller process, the wheat, and 
later its various parts, are passed through a series of steel 
rollers. The products formed at first are a low-gmde of 
flour, middlings and bran. The highest grades of flour 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. l6l 

are made by re-grinding the middlings. This process is 
the main feature in which roller-flour mills differ from 
old-time grist mills. * Partly by gravity and partly by sift¬ 
ing through a series of bolting-cloths, whose meshes differ 
in size, several grades of flour are made. Among millers 
these are known by certain names which have a definite 
meaning. But flour to be sold at retail is usually given— 
in order to attract the customer—some fancy name, such 
as Diamond or Pearl, Acme or Eclipse, White Lily or Polar 
Bear and so on. None of these are any guide to the qualitv 
of the flour. Often one kind of flour is put out under 
several different brands. Hence, one should learn other 
ways of judging the quality of flour. Good wheat flour 
has a creamy-white color. A grayish tinge denotes a low 
grade of flour, made, perhaps, from ill-grown or moldy 
wheat. When flour is extremely white, it may be an in¬ 
ferior grade, rendered white by bleaching. The baker’s 
test for flour is to make a small ball of dough by mixing 
the flour with cold water. The quality is judged by (i) 
the color, (2) the amount of water taken up—a dry flour, 
which absorbs much water, being economical, (3) whether 
the dough keeps its shape after standing for awhile. ThN 
shows the nature of the gluten. 

No cereal except wheat yields enough gluten for loaf 
bread. For this reason, when rye flour or cornmeal is to 
be made into loaves, considerable wheat flour must be 
mixed with the dough. 

Bread dough is kneaded to increase the elasticity of 
the gluten, to mix the yeast well through the mass, and to 
make bread of an even texture, without lumps or streaks. 

The objects in baking bread are to kill the yeast plant, 
and thus stop fermentation, to drive off the alcohol, to 
expand the carbon dioxide, to stiffen the gluten, and to 
make the starch digestible and well flavored. 

After being baked, the loaves should at once be turned 
from the pans, and be placed in a current of air, so that 
the crust may remain crisp. If a towel is placed over the 
loaves while hot, the crust is softened, and the bread does 
not keep well. 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


l62 


When eaten quite fresh, bread' forms into a sticky 
mass, difficult to digest. One is wise to let it stand twenty- 
four hours before using. 

Readings: Bread, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 112; National 
Geographical Magazine, March, 1908; Woman’s Share i*i 
Primitive Culture (Mason), pp. 30, 38-39. 


LIQUID YEAST. 


4 medium-sized potatoes. 

5 c. boiling water. 

1-4 c. dried hops. 


1-2 c. sugar. 

1 c. liquid yeast. 
4 T. salt. 


Wash and pare the potatoes, cover them with cold 
water and soak for a half hour. Put the hops and boiling 
water into a saucepan and cook slowly for ten minutes, 
then grate the potatoes, quickly add to them the boiling 
water, pouring through a strainer to remove the hops. 
(In case one cannot obtain the hops, yeast mav be made 
without them. The use of the hops is to aid in the keeping 
qualities of the yeast and to give a pleasant flavor to the 
bread.) Now put the grated potatoes and liquid over a 
moderate fire and stir constantly for five minutes, remove, 
add the sugar and salt, mixing well, and turn into a large 
crock or bowl and allow to stand until luke-warm; then 
stir in the yeast, cover and let it remain in a moderately 
warm place for four or five hours, or until it ferments. 
(Becomes filled with bubbles of gas.) Beat it well several 
times after it begins to rise; when through, set it away until 
cool, then pour it into glass jars. They should not be 
entirely full. Adjust the rubbers and screw the lids on 
tight. (Before using jars and lids, wash them in quite 
warm, soapy water, rinse in clear, hot water. Do not wipe 
but turn them up-side-down to drain before pouring in tne 
yeast.) Keep the yeast in a cool place and stirr well each 
time before using. One cup of this may be saved to start 
the next rising, and should be placed in a small jar by itself, 
as it retains its strength better if kept closed. This yeast 
should remain good for two weeks. 


WHEAT BREAD. 


2 c. sweet milk. 

2 c. luke-warm water. 

2 T. butter or other shortening. 


3 t. salt. 

1-2 c. liquid yeast. 
About 12 c. flour. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 1 63 

Scald the milk. It must not boil, but heat only umii 
bubbles begin to appear around the edge and a thin scum 
forms on top. Pour the hot milk into the bread pan, add 
the butter and salt, let stand until luke-warm, then add the 
water, turn in the yeast and sift in enough flour—beating 
constantly—to form a thick batter; continue to beat for 
about five minutes. (In summer, batter should be thicker 
than in winter, as the yeast works more rapidly in' the 
warm atmosphere. If one prefers an old-fashioned method, 
some flour may be sifted into the bread pan and the yeast 
poured into the center.) Cover the pan with a clean towel 
and put a large lid or a bread board over this. Let stand 
in a moderately warm place until morning, when it should 
be quite full of gas bubbles. (Hence this first part of the 
process is called the bread sponge.) Now add enough flour 
to make a dough as soft as can be handled. Sprinkle the 
bread board with flour, turn out the dough, leaving none 
sticking to the bread pan. (This is one of the signs of the 
careful, economical cook.) Knead for about fifteen minutes 
until the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board 
or hands. It must also be elastic. Test for this by a quick 
pressure of the finger. If kneaded enough it will spring 
back into place. 

Grease the bread pan, put in the dough, grease it evenly 
and lightly over the top, or it may be brushed with milk. 
Cover with a towel and stand it in a moderately warm 
place until doubled in bulk. Turn it on a bread board; 
do not sprinkle any flour on the board; work the dough 
lightly for about five minutes, or until fine grained. One 
may cut it open—always use a sharp knife—to learn the 
size of the gas bubbles inside. Do not cut it more than 
once or twice, or it will lose some of its lightness. When 
evenly fine grained, shape it into loaves, place in greased 
bread pans, grease the top of the loaves or moisten them 
with milk. Put a towel over them and set in a moderately 
warm place until they become light or about doubled in bulk* 
Just before placing them in the oven, pierce the top of each 
loaf in several places with a fork. Bake in a moderately 
hot oven, allowing forty-five minutes to a single loaf. Pans 
of a size to hold only one medium sized loaf are best, as 
the bread becomes more thoroughly baked than when sev- 


164 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


eral loaves are baked in one pan. Turn out of the pans as 
soon as baked and place them on a rack or tilt them up 
against the side of the pan so that the air may circulate 
around them. This method causes a crisp crust. Do not 
wrap bread in a towel, as the crust becomes soft and the 
bread is likely to mould. 

Instead of half milk and half water, the liquid may 
consist entirely of either one. Milk • bread keeps moist 
longer and is the more nutritious, but is somewhat yellow¬ 
ish in color. Water bread has the advantage of being 
whiter and cheaper, but contains less nutriment. 

In case rich, new milk is used, the butter or other 
shortening may be omitted. Bread is more wholesome 
without shortening, but it is thus somewhat tough, and to 
this most persons object. Many bread-makers add some 
sugar to the bread sponge. There is no harm in this 
the amount be small. Sugar really aids in the growth of 
the yeast, but it is a decided mistake to use so much sugar 
that one tastes the cane sugar rather than the natural sweet¬ 
ness of the wheat grain. 

wheat bread. (Short Time Process.) 

2 c. milk. 1 oz. compressed yeast. 

2 c. luke-warm water. 2 T. butter. 

12 c. spring wheat flour, or 
more of winter wheat. 3 t. salt. 

Scald the milk. Pour it into a bowl. Add the butter 
and salt. Stir until the butter melts. Then add the luke¬ 
warm water. Let the mixture stand until luke-warm. 
Dissolve the yeast in 2. T. luke-warm water. Add it. 
Sift in the flour, using slightly more or less if the 
quality of the flour requires it. The dough should be as 
soft as can be handled easily. Mix thoroughly. Turn out 
on a board, and knead about 15 minutes, or until smooth 
and elastic. Place it in a greased bowl. Grease the top 
of the dough. Put a towel'over the top and stand it in a 
moderately warm place until the dough has doubled its 
bulk. Turn out on a board (do not dust it with flour) 
and work lightly for 10 minutes, or until fine-grained. 
Mold into loaves. Place in greased bread pans. Grease 
the top of the loaves, and cover with a towel. Stand again 
in a moderately warm place until they double in bulk. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 1 65 

Bake in a moderately quick oven, allowing 45 minutes to a 
single loaf. Turn out of the pans as soon as baked, and 
stand on a rack, or in such a position that the air can 
circulate around them. 

RYE BREAD. 

Make and bake in the same way as Wheat Bread, 
using only 5 c. spring wheat flour and adding sufficient 
rye flour to stiffen. There may be needed about 8 c., since 
rye flour contains less gluten than wheat flour. For this 
reason also, it should be kneaded a somewhat shorter time. 
If liked, one or two tablespoonsful of caraway seeds may 
be added to the dough. 

FEATURES OF A PERFECT LOAF OF BREAD. 

Flavor —“Nutty”—having a distinct flavor of good flour, 
and not of other ingredients used. 

Odor —Pleasant, having no trace of sourness, mould or 
putrefaction. 

Lightness —Both in weight and in appearance of the interior. 
Shape —Evenly raised throughout. 

Crumb —A fine and even grain. 

Tender. 

Creamy white. 

Elastic—springing back under pressure of the 
finger. 

Crust —Evenly browned. 

Crisp, but not hard. 

PLAIN DESSERTS. (Hot.) 

SCALLOPED APPLES. 

2 large sour apples. 1-4 c. boiling water. 

1 c. stale bread crumbs. 2 T. butter, melted. 

6 T. sugar. 1-4 t. grated nutmeg. 

Wash the apples, pare, core and cut into eighths. Mix 
the bread crumbs, melted butter and nutmeg. Put a layer 
of the apples in a small baking dish, sprinkle half of the 
sugar over them, then cover with half of the crumbs; and 
finish filling in the same order. Pour the boiling water 
over the top, cover the dish, and bake 1-2 hour, then uncover 
and bake until the crumbs are brown and the apples tender. 
Serve hot, with clear vanilla sauce, or hard sauce. 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


166 


COTTAGE PUDDING. 

2 T. butter. 1-4 c. milk. 

1-2 c. sugar. 3-4 c. flour. 

1 egg. 1 t. baking powder. 

1-2 t. flavoring. 

Work the butter until creamy, add the yolk of egg, 
beat well together, then stir in the sugar, and work until 
light. Pour in the milk, sift in the flour, and beat until 
smooth. Add the flavoring and baking powder, and fold 
in lightly the well-beaten white of egg. Turn into a pan 
lined with paper, and bake from 20 to 30 minutes. Serve 
hot, with either hard or liquid sauce. 

bird's nest pudding. 


1 T. butter. 1-2 c. milk. 

3 T. sugar. 3-4 c. flour. 

1 egg. 6 peaches 

1 t. baking powder. 1-4 t. salt. 

Remove the skins and stones from the peaches, and 
place them, cut side down, in a greased baking pan. 

Sift the flour, salt, and baking powder into a bowl, rub 
in the butter, and when well mixed beat the egg, add the 
milk to it, and turn the liquid into the flour. Beat until 
free from lumps, scatter the sugar over the fruit, pour the 
batter on top, and bake in a brisk oven about a half hour. 
Serve hot, with hard or liquid sauce. 


STEAMED GRAPE DUMPLINGS. 

2 c. flour. I 1-2 c. grapes. 

2 T. sugar. 1-2 c. milk. 

3 t. baking powder. 1-2 t. salt. 

Sift all of the dry ingredients into a mixing bowl. Stir 
in the milk, adding a little more, if necessary, to make a 
soft drop batter. Have ready five or six baking cups, 
well greased. Drop into each one rounded tablespoonful 
of batter, place on this a spoonful of grapes (Concords 
are best), and cover them with a spoonful of batter. Set 
the cups in a saucepan containing enough boiling water to 
reach half way up the cups. Cover the saucepan and sim¬ 
mer for 20 minutes, or until the dough is fairly dry on top, 
and firm to the touch. Turn the dumplings carefully from 
the cups, and serve hot with vanilla sauce. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 1 0 £ 

Blackberries or cherries may be used instead of grapes. 
Sour cherries need to be sprinkled with sugar. 

CLEAR VANILLA SAUCE. 

1-2 c. sugar. 2 T. butter, 

i c. boiling water. i T. cornstarch. 

1-2 t. vanilla extract. 

Mix the sugar and cornstarch in a small saucepan. 
Pour over them the boiling water. Stir constantly over 
the fire until it boils and clears. Add the butter. Stir 
until melted. When readv to use. add the vanilla. Serve 
hot. 

HARD SAUCE. 

• 1-4 c. butter. 1-2 c. pulverized sugar. 

1-2 t. flavoring. 

Beat the butter to a cream. Add the sugar by degrees, 
beating constantly. When light, add the flavoring. Pile 
on a serving dish, and place in the refrigerator to harden. 
If liked, a slight grating of nutmeg may be sprinkled over 
the top. 

PLAIN DESSERTS. (Cold.) 

JUNKET. 

1-2 junket tablet or 1-2 t. liquid rennet. 1-2 t. vanilla.. 

1 pt. new milk. 4 T. sugar. 

Slight grating of nutmeg. 

Dissolve the junket tablet in 1 T. luke-warm water. 
Put the milk and sugar into a saucepan. Stir over the fire 
for a moment until luke-warm, or ioo° F. Remove, add 
the vanilla and the dissolved tablet, pour the junket into 
cups that have been slightly heated. Grate nutmeg over 
the top. Let the junket stand in a moderately warm place 
about 15 minutes or until set, then put it in the refrigerator 
for at least 1 hour. Handle carefully lest the curd break. 
Serve alone, or with a caramel sauce, or a soft custard 
sauce. 

CUP CUSTARD. 

2 eggs. 1-2 t. flavoring. 

4 T. sugar. 2 c. milk. 

Beat the eggs until thick, add the sugar, beat again. 
Put in the milk and flavoring, mix, pour into baking cups. 
Stand them in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate 
oven until firm in the center. 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


168 


RICE PUDDING. 

1 pt. milk. 3 T. rice. 

3 T. sugar. 1-8 t. ground cinnamon. 

Pick over and wash the rice, mix the sugar and cinna ¬ 
mon together, then put all the ingredients into a small bak¬ 
ing pan. Place in a moderate oven, stir every 15 minutes 
and bake until the rice is tender. When almost done, let 
it cook without stirring, in order that a pale brown crust 
may form over the top. 

PLAIN CORNSTARCH PUDDING. 

2 c. milk. Yolks 2 eggs. 

4 T. sugar. 3 T. cornstarch. 

1-2 t. flavoring. 

Put the milk on the stove to come to a boil. Beat the 
yolks of the eggs, add the sugar gradually and beat until 
thick, then stir in the cornstarch, a small portion at a time. 
When smooth, add to the boiling milk. Stir over the fire 
until it boils for 2 minutes. Remove, add the flavoring, 
turn out to cool. Serve alone or with cream. 

This may be made in a double boiler which avoids risk 
of scorching the milk. By this method, the pudding needs 
to be cooked 10 minutes after adding the cornstarch. 

COFFEE JELLY. 

6 T. sugar. 1-2 t. vanilla. 

1 3-4 c. strong, clear coffee. 1-2 oz. gelatine. 

Pour 1-4 c. cold water over the gelatine and soak 1-2 
hour. Then stir the gelatine into the coffee, which shouid 
be hot. After the gelatine is melted, add the sugar. Stir 
until it dissolves. Then mix in the vinalla. Turn into 
a mold. Stand in a cold place until it stiffens. Serve with 
whipped cream, plain cream, or soft custard sauce. 

If no jelly mold is at hand, pour the dessert into a 
shallow dish to stiffen. Have the jelly about 1 inch in 
depth. When ready to serve, cut into half-inch blocks, and 
pile them in the serving dish. 

SOFT CUSTARD SAUCE. 

Yolks 2 eggs. 1-2 t. flavoring. 

1 c. milk. 2 T. sugar. 

Boil the milk, or scald in a double boiler. Beat the 
yolks of eggs and sugar together until light. Add to the 
milk. Stir until it thickens slightly. Remove from the 
fire. Stand it away to cool. When ready to serve, mix in 
the flavoring. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


l 60 


SIMPLE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 

WITH FOOD MATERIALS 

STARCHES. 

GENERAL APPEARANCE ; SOURCES. 

1. Pare and grate a small piece of potato. Collect 
the gratings in a beaker containing some cold water. Then 
strain through cheesecloth, pressing well. Half fill a test 
tube. Let stand while preparing the following mixtures. 
Then put a few drops of iodine into the test-tube. A blue 
color shows the presence of starch. 

2. Put 1 t. cracked or rolled oats in a beaker, add 
4 t. cold water. Rub well between the fingers. Strain 
through cheese-cloth. Plalf fill a test tube. Set aside. 
Later examine as in 1. 

3. Treat cornmeal by the same method. 

4. Treat cream of wheat by the same method. 

5. Treat tapioca by the same method. 

6. Treat cornstarch by the same method. 

7. Treat with iodine each of the following sub¬ 
stances : cooked white meat of chicken, white-fish, and 
white of egg. 

8. Put 1-4 t. salt in a test tube, half fill wtih hot 
water, stir until salt dissolves, cool and treat with iodine. 

9. Same as exper. 8, using granulated sugar instead 
of salt. 

10. Treat a small amount of olive oil with iodine. 

Questions: Does the characteristic blue color of iodine 
with starch appear with sugar, fat (oil), mineral mat¬ 
ter (salt), or proteid? 

Would it appear that the animal, vegetable or mineral 
kingdom is the source of starch? 

What is the general appearance of raw starch under 
the microscope? 


170 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

ACTION OF COLD WATER ON STARCH. 

I. Treat small portion of dry cornstarch with cold 
water. Stir well, and filter. Evaporate filtrate on plati¬ 
num foil. Treat with iodine. 

Question: Has the starch changed in form ? 

Does the filtrate show the usual color of starch with 
iodine? 

ACTION OF BOILING WATER ON STARCH. 

1. Treat a small portion of dry starch with cold water, 
then bring to a boil. Note appearance. Test the temper¬ 
ature when it thickens. Test the temperature when it 
thickens. Test the temperature when it clears. Examine 
a little under the microscope. 

2. Have 4 t. boiling water in a test tube. Add 1-4 f. 
dry starch, and stir over a flame until boiling. 

3. Put 1-4 t. dry starch in a test tube, mix with 1 t. 
granulated sugar, pour over the mixture 4 t. boiling water, 
and stir constantly over the flame until boiling. 

4. Put 1-4 t. dry starch in a test tube, mix with it 
1-2 t. cold water, add 4 t. boiling water, and stir over 
flame until boiling. 

5. Put 1-4 t. dry starch in a porcelain evaporating 
dish, rub with it 1-4 t. butter, pour over the mixture 4 t. 
boiling water, and stir over the flame until boiling. 

Question: After starch has been boiled with water, in 
what ways is its form changed? 

Decide upon poor and good methods for thickening 
soups, sauces, puddings, etc., with flour or other starch. 

ACTION OF DRY HEAT ON STARCH. 

1. Heat and stir some dry starch slowly in a clean, 
dry, porcelain evaporating dish. Note change in color. 

2. Cool 1, add cold water, filter, and divide the 
filtrate in two portions. Boil one portion, and note whether 
it thickens the liquid more or less than does the same 
amount of raw starch. 

3. Treat the other portion with iodine. Note whether 
any of the dry-heated starch has passed through the filter 
paper. Note color. 

4. Chew slowly a bit of crumb of wheat bread, then 
chew slowly a bit of moderately brown crust. Note the 
difference in flavor. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. I/I 

Questions: Does dry heat change starch more or less 
quickly than moist heat? 

Is the form (dextrin) to which starch is changed by 
intense heat more or less soluble than raw starch? Hbw 
should the cooking of starch affect its digestibility? 

Which may be considered the more digestible, the 
crumb or the crust of bread ? 

Does browned (dextrinized) flour thicken a liquid 
more or less than raw flour? How would this affect the 
proportions for a sauce? 

ACTION OF ACIDS ON STARCH. 

1. To a cool starch solution in a test tube add dilute 
sulphuric acid. Note action on the thickening properties 
of starch. 

2. Treat the results with iodine. Note difference be¬ 
tween color and that of raw starch with iodine. 

3. To a small portion of dry starch in a porcelain 
evaporating dish add a few drops of concentrated sulphuric 
acid. Note the charring. 

Questions: In making a sauce, flavored with vegetable 
acid (such as lemon juice), should the flavoring be added 
at the moment of serving or earlier? 

Should stewed tomatoes be let cook a long or a short 
time after adding the thickening? 

Does the addition of a vegetable acid to starchy foods 
appear to make them more or less easily digested? 

ACTION OF SALIVA ON STARCH. 

1. Make a thin starch paste, using 1-2 t. starch to 3 T. 
water, cook until clear, then divide between three test 
tubes and cool to 98° F. In a fourth tube collect some 
saliva. Keep all the tubes standing in warm water at 98° F. 

2. Pour part of the saliva into two tubes of the starch 
paste. Mix well. Let both stand 15 minutes. 

3. Add Fehling’s solution to the third tube of starch. 

4. Add Fehling’s to the saliva alone. 

5. Treat one tube from 2 with iodine. (A violet color 
shows it gradually changing to sugar.) 

6. Add Fehling’s solution to the other tube from 2. 
(A red ppt. shows the starch changing to maltose.) Com¬ 
pare with 3 and 4. 


172 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


Questions: What do these experiments teach about the 
thorough chewing of starchy foods? 

PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS WITH CEREALS, COMPARING COST 

AMOUNT OF MATERIAL AND METHODS OF COOKING. 

1. Select several uncooked cereals. Determine the 
amount of each needed to thicken 1 c. of liquid, cooking 
each until well done. Note difference in length of time 
needed for cooking,- hence amount of fuel required. Note 
amount of material after cooking. Compute the cost of 
each, and compare. 

2. Soak over night 1-4 c. of each of the cereals used 
in 1. Cook as in 1. Note difference of time in cooking 
those in 1 and 2, hence cost of fuel required. 

3. Choose several of the “ready-to-eat” brands of 
cereals. Weigh and measure each 4 package, and decide how 
many persons each will serve, also the relative cost of the 
portions. Compare the cost of these prepared foods with 
that of the cooked cereals in 1 and 2. 

COMPARATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE AND COST OF RICE AND 

POTATOES. 

1. Note chemical composition of rice, and of potatoes. 
Compare the cost of a pound of each with the amount of 
starch yielded by each. Which is the more economical 
source of starch as food? 

SUGARS. 

1. Put 1 t. dry sugar in a porcelain evaporating dish, 
and heat slowly, stirring constantly. Hold a piece of glass 
close above it, and note the moisture which collects. 

.2 Continue to heat 1, noting the pale yellow color it 
soon turns. (This stage is called barley sugar.) 

3. Continue the heating, and when it turns a red- 
brown, and begins to smoke, remove from the heat, pour 
in slowly an equal amount of boiling water. Return to 
the heat, and bring to a boil. Remove, let cool and taste. 
(This is called caramel.) 

4. Put 1 t. granulated sugar in a test tube, add 
2 T. hot water, and stir until dissolved. Divide into two- 
portions. Test one portion with Fehling’s solution. Note 
whether any ppt. forms. 

5. To the remaining portion add 1-4 t. lemon juice, 
boil and test with Fehling’s. Note the color of the ppt. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


173 


6. Put a small portion of grape juice into a test tube, 
add a few drops of Fehling’s solution and heat. Note the 
color of the ppt. 

7. Put a small amount of honey in a test tube, add 
an equal amount of water, stir well, add a few drops of 
Fehling’s and heat. Note ppt. 

Questions: What may be learned from 1 regarding the 
keeping of sugar in paper sacks, or in tin boxes? 

Do experiments 2 and 3 show that sugar becomes more 
or less sweet by long cooking? Would it be more econom¬ 
ical to add sugar to a dish when put on to cook, or when 
nearly finished? 

. From 4 and .5 would you decide that sugar is more 
digestible when eaten alone, or when used with some fruit 
acid, as in lemonade? 

From 4, 5, 6 and 7, does it appear that cane sugar is 
the more readily digested or the (invert) sugar found in 
fruit, and to some extent in honey? Is it well, then, to 
depend upon fruits chiefly .for the sugar needed in our 
diet, or upon cakes and candy? 

FATS. 

1. With a bit of litmus paper, try the reaction of a 
fresh fat, such as lard or olive oil. (The fat will appear 
neutral.) 

2. Test some rancid butter in the same way, and 
note any acid reaction. 

3. Put a bit of suet on platinum foil, place over a 
flame until very hot. Note the unpleasant odor of burned 
fat. Test for acidity with litmus paper. 

4. Put 1 t. olive oil and 1 t. vinegar into a test tube 
and shake well together. Note the milky appearance. 
(Emulsion.) Then hold the tube still, and see the oil 
globules rise. 

5. Let milk stand until cream gathers. Examine a 
drop of cream, then a drop of milk, under the microscope. 
Which has the greater number of oil globules? Make 
drawing. Compare with 4. 

Questions: How does intense heat affect fats? Would 
you think it wise to use fried articles of food often? 


i/4 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


What does 2 show about the use of rancid butter in 
cakes? Judging from 4, can you see any reason for serving 
acid fruits or vegetables with fat meat—such as apple 
sauce with pork? 

If an invalid needed fatty food, would you think it. 
wiser to give them olive oil and fresh cream, or the fat of 
roasted meat? 

WATER. 

EVAPORATION. 

1. In two beakers of equal size and like shape put 
equal amounts of water. Keep one barely bubbling, and 
boil the other briskly, for 5 minutes. Remove from the 
heat, and compare amounts remaining. Note advantages 
and disadvantages of each method, as applied to cooking. 

2. Select two utensils that will hold an equal amount 
of water. Have one broad and shallow, the other narrow 
and deep. Put an equal measure of water into each. Place 
both over an equally hot fire. Note the time required for 
coming to a boil. Let each boil violently until the water 
is evaporated from one or both. Compare the length of 
time required. 

SOLVENT ACTION. 

3. Have at hand some sugar, common salt, and bicar¬ 
bonate of soda. Fill three test tubes nearly full of cold 
water. Drop a little of each of the substances into differ¬ 
ent tubes, and stir. Note how long it takes for each to 
dissolve. 

4. Add more of each substance until the water dis¬ 
solves no more, and the substance begins to settle on the 
bottom. 

5. Slowly heat the test tubes in 4, and note whether 
the sediment dissolves. 

6. Let 5 stand until cold, and note the result. 

7. Filter the liquid from each test tube into three 
tubes of larger size. 

8. To the large test tube holding the salt solution, add 
dry sugar slowly, stirring meanwhile. Note whether any 
is dissolved, and, if so, does the salted water dissolve as 
much sugar as the water used at first in testing the sugar? 

9. To the large test tube containing bicarbonate of 
soda, add sugar as in 8, and compare in the same way. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 175 

io. To the large test tube holding the salt solution, 
add bicarbonate of soda, as in 8, and compare as in 8. 

Questions: Can you decide upon certain dishes where 
different rates of evaporation would be needed, as in i ? 

What articles should be cooked in each of the twT 
utensils mentioned in 2 ? Which of the two methods 
requires the less fuel, and is thus the more economical? 

Can you give the reason for the fact that sugar and 
salt require different lengths of time to dissolve? 

After water has dissolved all that it can of any one 
substance (then called a saturated solution) is it still aDe 
to dissolve any other substance? Decide roughly upon the 
proportion, if any, of this second substance. How would 
you apply this knowledge to the question of using hard 
water in making tea or coffee? 

Which seems to dissolve most substances the more 
readily, cold or hot water? In what way may this fact be 
applied in cooking? 

From 5 and 6 can you decide why sugar crystals some¬ 
times appear in jelly? 

PROTEIDS. 

MILK. 

Composition. 

1. To a little fresh milk in a test tube add some Fehl- 
ing’s solution. Boil for a minute. Note whether there is 
any red color, showing the presence of sugar. 

2. Test a little of the milk with iodine, to see whether 
there is any starch in it. 

3. In a test tube have a little milk and a few drops of 
Millon’s reagent. Boil, and note whether there is a pink 
or red color, showing the presence of proteid. 

4. Dissolve half of a junket tablet in 1 T. luke-warm 
water. Then divide the liquid in four parts. 

Bring 1-2 cup of milk to boiling point. To one-half 
of this, while boiling, add one portion of the rennet. Stand 
away to cool. 

5. Cool remaining half of the milk from 4, to a 
temperature of 98° F., add one portion of the rennet, and 
place awav until quite cool. 

6. To 1-4 cup ice-cold milk, add one portion of the 
rennet. Stand away with 4 and 5. 


176 


ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 


7. Bring 1-4 cup of milk to 98° F., add one portion 
of the rennet, and place with the others. Examine it after 
15 minutes, noting the consistency. • 

8. Heat 1-2 cup thick sour milk to 98° F. Strain 
without pressure through cheese-cloth, and note appear¬ 
ance of curd. 

9. Heat 1-2 cup thick sour milk to 120° F. Treat 
and examine like 8. 

10. Bring 1-2 cup clabber to boiling point. Examine 
like 8. 

Questions: From 4, 5, 6 and 7, to what degree should 
milk be heated for best results in making junket custard? 

What do these experiments show regarding the drink¬ 
ing of ice-cold milk, or the eating of large amounts - of ice 
cream at meals? 

From 8, 9 and 10, draw conclusions as to the best 
temperature for milk when making cottage cheese. Which 
of the three gives the best appearance? Which is the most 
wasteful? Which makes an indigestible cheese? 

EGGS. 

EFFECT OF HEAT ON ALBUMEN. 

1. Put into a test tube a small amount of white of egg, 
insert a chemical thermometer, and hold the tube in water, 
heating gradually. Note the appearance of the white at 
134°, 160 0 and 212° F. Stir occasionally while heating to 
see the solidity. 

DIGESTIBILITY. 

2. Have three test tubes at hand. In one place a 
teaspoonful of very soft-cooked white of egg; in another, 
the same amount of finely chopped white of hard-boiled 
egg; and in the third, place half-inch piece of hard-boiled 
white. 

Put into each tube some pepsin and hydrochloric acid, 
making them about half full, and set the test tubes *n 
water at 98° F. Keep them at this temperature for one 
and a half hours, then examine, noting which has been the 
more readily dissolved. Several hours later, look at them 
again. 

(Note—By using 1.1 parts of pepsin, and 7.5 parts 
of hydrochloric acid, there may be made a mixture similar 
to the digestive juice in the stomach.) 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 


177 


Questions: From 1, what rules may be made regard¬ 
ing the time and method of mixing eggs with the liquid 
in making dressing for cole slaw; also, in thickening sauces 
and puddings? 

From 2, how might one decide upon the best ways of 
cooking eggs for an invalid ? What method might be risked 
for persons doing muscular work? 

MEATS. 

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION. 

1. Choose a piece of lean beef, cut from the flank, 
round, or neck. Use a dull knife, and scrape it lengthwise 
of. the fibre, noting the structure. Examine a muscle fibre 
under the microscope. Make a drawing. 

2. Cook a piece of cartilage slowly in water. Finally 
allow the water to boil down to a small amount. Take out 
the cartilage, and set the liquid away to chill. (It should 
become stiff, showing the presence of gelatine.) 

3. Burn a rather large bone in a hot fire until it 
becomes a white, porous framework. (Lime, to a great 
extent.) 

4. Cut some meat, mostly lean, into quite small pieces, 
put into a test tube, cover with cold water, and let soak for 
an hour or more. Then note the color of the water. 

5. Bring the liquid from 4 to a boil, strain, add a 
speck of salt, and taste. Does the flavor show any ex¬ 
tractives from the meat? 

BAKING POWDERS. 

1. Taste cream of tartar, and note color. 

2. Taste bicarbonate of soda, and note color. Com¬ 
pare flavor and color with 1. 

3. Mix 1-4 teaspoonful cream of tartar and 1-2 tea¬ 
spoonful bicarbonate of soda. Taste. 

4. To 3 add a little less than 1-4 teaspoonful of flour. 
Mix all well together, and taste. 

5. Taste a cream of tartar baking powder, and com¬ 
pare with 4 as regards flavor. 

6. Put 2 tablespoonsful of cold water in ^ test tube, 
and 1-4 teaspoonful bicarbonate of soda, stirring until dis¬ 
solved. Notice bubbles. Of what are they formed? 

7. Same experiment as 6, using boiling water. In 
which liquid are the bubbles given off the more rapidly? 


I 78 ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

8. Try cream of tartar by the same methods as 6 and 
7. Note whether it dissolves, and whether any gas is 
formed. 

9. To 7 add half the amount of 8. Note gas formed, 
also odor and flavor. Compare with 3. 

10. Stir 1-2 teaspoonful baking powder with 2 table- 
spoonsful cold water. Compare with 9. Note sediment. 
What is it? (See 4.) 

11. Let mixtures 9 and 10 stand until bubbles form 
very slowly, then add boiling water, and note whether gas 
is given off. Explain. 

12. Compare taste of sour milk, lemon juice, vinegar 
and molasses—Porto Rico or sorghum—with 1. (The 
reaction of molasses may be tested with litmus paper.) 

13. Put 1 tablespoonful of each substance in 12 into 
separate test tubes, add to each 1-8 teaspoonful bicarbonate 
of soda. Stir well, and compare with 9. 

14. Allow 13 to stand for about 10 minutes, add bod¬ 
ing water, and compare with 11. 

15. To 1-8 cup of flour add about 1 tablespoonfui 
cold water, mixing to a dough. Put it in a glass measuring 
cup or tumbler, so that the amount may be easily seen. Let 
it stand a while. Note whether it increases in size. 

16. To 1-8 cup flour add 1-4 teaspoonful baking 
powder, mix well, and add 1 tablespoonful cold water, mix¬ 
ing and standing aside as in 15. Note the difference in 
bulk as compared to 15. 

17. Set the cup containing 16 in a pan of warm water, 
and heat gradually. Does the mixture increase in bulk? 

18. Using two forks, lightly pull apart the' warm 
dough from 17. Note appearance of inside compared 
with 15. 

Questions: What is the active principle in baking pow¬ 
der? Why do manufacturers put some starch into baking 
powder? Does a soda and cream of tartar mixture give 
off all its gas when mixed with a cold liquid. 

In case no baking powder is at hand, what may be 
used in its place? 

With sour milk or molasses, which is the better to use, 
baking powder or bicarbonate of soda ? Explain. 


A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS. 179 

Is it well to mix a batter or dough, and then let it stand 
for some time before baking? 

Is a cold or a hot liquid the better to use in mixing a 
batter? 

What is the proper time for adding baking powder to 
a batter? 

YEAST. 

i. Have at hand four test tubes. Label them a, b, c, 

and d. 

Mix i yeast cake with 4T. cold water. Then put an 
equal portion of the liquid into each test tube. Put 1-2 T. 
molasses into each of the tubes a, b and-c. * 

Fill a with luke-warm water, about 75° to 8o° F. 
Stand it in a beaker or tumbler holding luke-warm water, 
and keep it at this temperature. 

Fill b with boiling water, and stand aside. 

Fill c with ice water, and set the tube in a beaker 
containing cracked ice. 

Fill d with cold water. 

After about 30 minutes examine all of the test tubes. 
See whether there is foam on any of them. Foam denotes 
that the yeast is growing. 

2. Later, place tubes b and c in luke-warm water, and 
let stand a while, noting whether any change occurs. 

3. Under the microscope, examine a drop of yeast 
from the test tube a. Note the shape of cells, whether any 
buds are forming, and make drawings. 

4. Close a with a stopper in which a bent glass tube 
is inserted. Have some lime water in a beaker. Set this 
beside a, and place the free end of the glass tube in the 
lime water. Note whether the lime water grows milky. 
This is a test for carbon dioxide. 

Questions: What would you think the best tempera¬ 
ture for bread sponge or dough? 

What would happen to bread sponge started with boil¬ 
ing water? 

If bread sponge or dough be kept in a very cool room, 
what effect will this have on its lightness? 


l8o ELEMENTARY DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

, . * 

FLOUR. 

1. Mix 1-4 c. flour with enough cold water to form a 
stiff dough. Put it in a piece of cheese-cloth, then wash 
and knead the dough under cold water, until nothing more 
can be washed out. Note the tough substance left in the 
cheese,-cloth. This is gluten. Try stretching it. 

2. Take 1-4 c. cornmeal. Treat like 1. Compare 
result with 1. 

3. Use 1-4 c. rye flour, and treat as in 1, comparing 
result with 1. 

4. Bake the gluten obtained in 1. Note its increase 
in bulk. Open and note the appearance of the interior. 
Which would make the best loaf bread, flour with little, t,r 
with considerable gluten? 













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